Still, in every culture there are people whose sex cannot be clearly identified or who do not identify with the gender that is designated for them. These individuals are in a state of liminality, which means that they are in a situation that is “ambiguous or indeterminate” (Boyd and Lassiter 218). The word liminality comes from the Latin word limen, which means “threshold”. Hence, these people cannot exactly classify themselves as belonging to one or the other sex or gender.
A famous example of such people are the hijras of India who represent an alternative or mixed sex/gender role since they “are culturally conceptualized as neither man nor woman, neither male nor female” (Nanda 2008: 461). The hijras, the so called third gender in India, are usually represented by biological males who take on a feminine gender or sexual role. They are “people whom we in the West would differentiate as eunuchs, homosexuals, transsexuals, hermaphrodites, and transvestites” (Nanda 1993: 175). However, a great difference between alternative genders in India and the West can be seen especially concerning their social acceptance. Our Western culture, “where ideas about sex and gender are conflated rather than viewed separately, [is] not well socialized to the possibility of gender variation” (Boyd and Lassiter 217), whereas the hijra’s “role is so deeply rooted in Indian culture that it can accommodate a wide variety of […] gender identities [and] cross-gender behaviors […]” (Nanda 1993: 175). Why the hijras of India take an established role within Hindu culture, who they really are, and what their role in society actually is, will be presented in this work.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction
2 Religious and mythological context
3 Defining Hijras
a … as not men
b … as not women
4 Hijra’s role in society
a Ritual performances
b Sexuality
5 Social organization of the hijra community
6 Conclusion
Research Objectives and Key Topics
This work explores the identity and societal integration of the Hijras in India, analyzing how they navigate the boundaries of sex and gender. It investigates the cultural and religious foundations of their existence and examines their role in society, questioning how they manage to maintain a distinct identity while living in an ambiguous social space.
- Religious and mythological roots in Hindu culture
- Defining the Hijra identity beyond the male/female binary
- Societal functions, including ritual performances and blessings
- Complex internal social structures, households, and the guru-chela relationship
Excerpt from the Book
Religious and mythological context
The most important basis why the hijra community is so successful in being accepted by Indian society is Hindu religion and Indian mythology. Hinduism, in contrast to many western religions, “believes in the existence of multiple gods, many of whom are androgynous [which means that they have] both female and male characteristics” (Peoples 248). Also Indian mythology “contains numerous examples of androgynes, impersonators of the opposite sex, and individuals who undergo sex changes, both among deities and humans” (Nanda 1993: 176).
One of the most important sexually ambivalent figures in Hinduism is Shiva, a deity, which incorporates both male and female aspects. There are two reasons why hijras identify especially with this deity. First, Shiva is represented in many different ways, but the most popular form is that of Ardhanarisvara, a form that embodies a female as well as a male side. Because of this combination of masculinity and femininity Shiva is widely acknowledged as a super-god that is especially worshiped by hijras. Second, its “most powerful symbol and object of worship is the phallus – but the phallus is always set in the yoni, the symbol of the female genitals” (Nanda 1993: 176). So again there is this unification of two sexes. But the phallus even holds another symbolic role. According to an anecdote, Shiva’s self-emasculation became the major source of its creative power. By removing the penis and the testicles, Shiva made himself impotent. However, since “Hinduism not only accommodates [sexual] ambiguities, but also views them as meaningful and even powerful” (Nanda 1993: 176), impotence is not a taboo in India, on the contrary, “in Hinduism, impotence can be transformed into procreative power through the practice of asceticism, or the renunciation of sex” (Nanda 2011: 263).
Summary of Chapters
1 Introduction: This chapter introduces the concepts of sex and gender, contrasting Western binary perspectives with the liminal state experienced by the Hijras in India.
2 Religious and mythological context: This section explains how Hindu mythology and androgynous deities provide a religious foundation that allows Hijras to be integrated into Indian society.
3 Defining Hijras: This chapter explores the identity of Hijras, examining their cultural categorization as neither men nor women.
4 Hijra’s role in society: This section analyzes the traditional ritual functions of Hijras and the complexities regarding their sexuality and social standing.
5 Social organization of the hijra community: This chapter details the hierarchical structure of Hijra households and the mentor-disciple (guru-chela) system.
6 Conclusion: The final chapter summarizes the contradictions of the Hijra identity and highlights the Indian capacity to embrace gender variance.
Keywords
Hijras, Gender Identity, Hinduism, Liminality, Third Gender, Ardhanarisvara, Emasculation, Ritual Performance, Asceticism, Guru-Chela Relationship, Social Marginality, Sexuality, Indian Society, Cultural Ambiguity, Mother Goddess.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core focus of this academic work?
The work focuses on the Hijras of India, exploring their unique identity as a third gender and their paradoxical position within Indian society and culture.
What are the primary thematic areas covered?
The paper covers the religious and mythological underpinnings of the community, their defining characteristics, their ritual societal roles, and their internal social organization.
What is the main research question of this paper?
The paper seeks to explain why the Hijras occupy an established, albeit complex, role within Hindu culture and how they define their identity relative to the gender binary.
Which scientific methodology is applied here?
The work utilizes a cultural anthropological approach, relying on ethnographic literature and academic sources to analyze gender variation and social structures.
What topics are addressed in the main body?
The main body examines the religious connection to Shiva, the physical and behavioral definitions of the Hijra identity, their roles as ritual performers, and the communal structure of their households.
Which keywords best describe this study?
Key terms include Hijras, Third Gender, Hinduism, Gender Identity, Ritual Performance, Liminality, and Social Organization.
How does the role of the Hijras differ from Western concepts of gender?
Unlike Western cultures that often struggle to resolve sexual ambiguities, Hindu culture accommodates them, viewing these variations as meaningful or even powerful.
What is the significance of the guru-chela relationship?
This relationship represents an extended family structure that provides social security, training, and a hierarchical path for members within the Hijra community.
Why are Hijras considered to be in a state of liminality?
They are in a 'threshold' state because they do not fit into the binary categories of male or female, living instead as an 'in-between' group.
- Quote paper
- Nina Daub (Author), 2013, The Hijras. An alternative Gender Role in India, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/279679
