Those who are interested in soccer certainly know it: the Wembley goal from 1966 and the debate about whether it was a goal or it was not. While the English fans (for whom the goal would have gained the lead) certainly perceived it as a goal, the Germans believed the ball had not crossed their goal line. And both groups were sure they are right - a perfect example for motivated reasoning!
The term motivated-reasoning refers to a kind of self-regulation that enables people to believe in favorable things, although there is some severe evidence to disprove those beliefs. Motivated-reasoning is closely linked to terms like “wishful thinking” and “denial” and might lead to “unrealistic optimism” or “self-deception”. It especially occurs in situations that threaten one´s self-concept or previously held expectation of one´s future.
Imagine for example, somebody is fired from a job, although that person believes him or herself to be an intelligent and capable employee. Or a man who believes he is happily married, but then his wife comes home smelling of someone else’s after-shave. Both persons are potential victims for motivated-reasoning because motivated-reasoning enables them to keep their positive beliefs. The fired person – imagine she is a woman – might, for example, consider she was fired because the boss was sexist. And the cheated husband might convince himself that the smell of cologne is the result of his wife standing very close to another man on the tram.
Motivated-reasoning is a widespread phenomenon. People have the ability – and often also the opportunity – to see a glass as being half full or half empty.
But how exactly does motivated-reasoning function? How can one betray oneself? Are people aware of deceiving themselves and how far can they go in doing so? What kinds of motivation drive them? And perhaps most importantly, is it or is it not useful that people are able to see what they want to see? The current text will give answers to all those questions.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. How can one betray oneself? - Proposed mechanisms
2.1. To reason or not to reason?
2.2. Biased hypothesis testing
2.3. Motivated perception
2.4. Triggers and Mediators
3. The reason behind the reasoning - Proposed motives
3.3. Self-esteem or self-maintainance?
3.2. Self-protection or self-enhancement?
3.3. Any motivation at all or just violation of expectation?
4. Motivated reasoning in economical and political contexts
5. Advantages and disadvantages of self-deception
6. Conclusion - Or "I had a dream"
Objectives & Core Topics
This work examines the psychological mechanisms and underlying motives of motivated reasoning and self-deception, exploring why individuals often maintain favorable, yet unrealistic, beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
- Cognitive mechanisms behind self-deception (e.g., biased hypothesis testing and perception)
- Motivational drivers, specifically self-esteem maintenance and self-enhancement
- The impact of violated expectations versus emotional motivation on reasoning
- Applications of motivated reasoning in political and economic decision-making
- The evolutionary trade-offs and adaptive nature of self-deceptive strategies
Excerpt from the Book
2.2. Biased hypothesis testing
So far it has been noted that people process negative information to a greater quantity (Ditto & Lopez 1992; Kruglanski 1983, 1990). But furthermore, they might process it with a different quality (Kunda 1987, 1990; Pyszczsnski & Greenberg 1987). Generally processing of information can be divided into several steps (Pyszczsnski & Greenberg 1987): To begin with, one has to generate a hypothesis that explains the event. Then, one has to generate an inference rule followed by the need to search for information to use the inference rule. Afterwards, the implication from the information should be drawn and one can accept the hypothesis or dismiss it. Or, one can go through the same process with other inference rules to evaluate the hypothesis more accurately.
Up to this point it would seem that people make quite rational judgments. And, actually it is often stated that lay people behave like “naïve” (Heider 1958/1977) or “intuitive scientists” (Baumeister & Newman 1994). But although the process itself seems to be quite rational, it might be motivationally biased in several ways to give events the meaning one wants them to have. The consequence is that people often behave rather like “intuitive lawyers” (Baumeister & Newman 1994).
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: Defines motivated reasoning as a self-regulatory process used to maintain favorable beliefs and introduces the concept through everyday examples and common psychological terminology.
2. How can one betray oneself? - Proposed mechanisms: Analyzes the cognitive and emotional processes that allow individuals to ignore or reframe information, including biased hypothesis testing and subconscious perception.
3. The reason behind the reasoning - Proposed motives: Investigates the underlying psychological drivers for self-deception, contrasting theories of self-esteem maintenance, protection, and enhancement.
4. Motivated reasoning in economical and political contexts: Applies theoretical concepts to real-world scenarios, showing how political partisanship and consumer behavior are influenced by biased reasoning.
5. Advantages and disadvantages of self-deception: Evaluates the functional utility of self-deception, questioning whether its potential for positive self-image outweighs the risks of ignoring objective reality.
6. Conclusion - Or "I had a dream": Synthesizes the core arguments, reinforcing that self-deception is a pervasive phenomenon linked to deep-seated emotional needs and limited self-insight.
Keywords
Motivated reasoning, Self-deception, Wishful thinking, Cognitive bias, Confirmation bias, Self-esteem, Selective exposure, Hot cognition, Attribution theory, Self-presentation, Psychological defense, Illusion of objectivity, Defensive inattention
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary subject of this work?
The work explores the phenomenon of motivated reasoning and self-deception, explaining how and why individuals maintain beliefs that are inconsistent with objective reality.
What are the central thematic fields discussed?
The text covers cognitive mechanisms of self-deception, the role of emotional motivation in information processing, and the broader social implications in politics and economics.
What is the primary research objective?
The goal is to analyze the psychological mechanisms and motives that drive self-deception and to determine whether these processes are adaptive or mal-adaptive for the individual.
Which scientific methods are primarily analyzed?
The author evaluates various psychological theories and experimental studies, focusing on frameworks such as dissonance theory, attribution theory, and empirical research on social cognition.
What does the main body address?
It details specific mechanisms like biased hypothesis testing and motivated perception, while discussing the "why" behind the reasoning, such as self-protection and the need for control.
Which keywords best characterize this work?
Key terms include motivated reasoning, self-deception, confirmation bias, self-esteem maintenance, and hot cognition.
How does "hot cognition" influence the reasoning process?
It refers to the idea that cognition is initiated and directed by emotions and motivations, causing individuals to process information in ways that support their desired outcomes.
Is self-deception considered useful?
The work presents a nuanced view, noting that while it can lead to improved mental health and social functioning, it also carries the significant risk of ignoring severe reality-based threats.
- Arbeit zitieren
- Vanessa Köneke (Autor:in), 2009, Psychology of self-insight - Motivated reasoning and self-deception, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/173597
