This paper is a critique on the application of sexual categories for male-male encounters. The paper will start with an analysis on the development of ‘homosexuality’ as a modern category for sexual preference in Western societies. In comparison to that, the social and cultural frame of Muslim societies will be shown.

Furthermore, various discourses applied to cross-cultural encounter between Western and Muslim societies will be examined to answer the question in how far sexual categories are used to explain social conditions and how categories from Western societies are transferred into a Muslim context without critical reflection.

In the last part, the paper will deal with the question in how far developing social networks based on male-male sexual acts in Muslim countries are adapting to a ‘global gay identity’ and with which consequences. To illustrate this, recent studies about homosexual men in Turkey and Lebanon will be referenced.
For the most part, this historical ‘evidence’ has been described in studies based on a small amount of reliable information and with unfortunate usage of definitions and categories common to European and North American sociology.
‘Homosexuality’ is such a term. It is by no means neutral and applicable to Muslim or other non-Western societies. It ascribes meaning to certain social occurrences and obstructs the perspective on the actual realities. Pre-knowledge from one’s own cultural background is applied to the subject instead of obtaining knowledge from the subject itself.

Amongst sociologists it is recognised that ‘the homosexual’ is a historical construct and that it is necessary to make a distinction between homosexual behaviour, which is and has been present in most cultures and homosexual identity, which is a rather young phenomenon originating from Western European and Northern American culture.

Sexuality has a history of its own with ideas, practices and values that are different in various times and spaces. Additionally, the variety of these historical examples shows that a single definition for homosexual behaviour in Islamic societies cannot be found because different people in different social situations define sexualities differently.

Leseprobe

Inhaltsverzeichnis (Table of Contents)

Introduction
Muslim Homosexuality – Global Homosexuality?

The status of current research
Definitions and Terms

Cultural traditions and social frames for homosexual behaviour

Homosexuality as a modern social category in Western societies
Modes of male-male encounters in Muslim societies
The Orientalist and Colonial discourse on sexual practices

The ‘other' sexuality

Literary discourse and Sex-Tourism
Michel Foucault and his homosexual Orientalism
Excursus: Iran

Postcolonial discourse on sexual categories

Modes of Homosexuality in Turkey and Lebanon
Globalisation as frame for adaptation

Conclusion

Zielsetzung und Themenschwerpunkte (Objectives and Key Themes)

This paper aims to critically examine the application of Western sexual categories, specifically "homosexuality," to male-male encounters in Muslim societies. It challenges the common assumption of intolerance towards non-normative sexual behavior in these societies, advocating for a re-evaluation of terminology and its implications. The study analyzes how cultural traditions and social frames shape understandings of sexuality, investigates the impact of Orientalist and colonial discourses, and explores postcolonial perspectives on sexual categories.

The problematic application of Western sexual categories to non-Western contexts.
The influence of Orientalist and colonial discourses on the understanding of sexuality in Muslim societies.
The historical and contemporary expressions of same-sex behavior in Muslim societies.
The need for nuanced definitions and terminology when studying sexuality across cultures.
The impact of globalization on sexual practices and identities in Muslim societies.

Zusammenfassung der Kapitel (Chapter Summaries)

Introduction: This introductory chapter sets the stage for the paper by highlighting the paradox between reported male-male sexual encounters in Muslim societies and the official, often vehemently rejecting, discourse surrounding homosexuality. It questions the uncritical application of Western sexual categories to these societies and emphasizes the need for a careful re-examination of terms and their inherent biases. The chapter introduces the central argument: the term "homosexuality" and its associated meanings are not easily transferable, and their imposition risks obscuring the complex realities of sexual behavior in diverse cultural contexts.

Muslim Homosexuality – Global Homosexuality?: This chapter delves into the existing research on homosexuality in Muslim societies, highlighting the scarcity of reliable contemporary accounts and the overreliance on historical sources and questionable statistics. It critically assesses the limitations of using medieval Arabic literature or religious texts (tafsir, hadith, fiqh) to understand contemporary sexual practices, arguing that these sources fail to capture the dynamic interplay of social and cultural change. The chapter underscores the difficulties in translating concepts and terms across different languages and cultural frames, further compounding the challenge of accurate research in this field.

Cultural traditions and social frames for homosexual behaviour: This section explores how cultural traditions and social structures influence expressions of same-sex behavior. It contrasts the modern Western concept of "homosexuality" as a fixed identity with diverse historical and contemporary practices in Muslim societies. The analysis differentiates between various forms of male-male encounters, such as age-structured, status-stratified, gender-stratified, and egalitarian relationships. These distinctions are essential for understanding the power dynamics and social roles associated with different forms of same-sex behavior. The chapter highlights the diversity of sexual practices and the importance of avoiding generalizations.

The ‘other' sexuality: This chapter examines the ways in which the sexuality of non-Western societies has been constructed and represented in Western discourse, focusing on the role of Orientalist and colonial perspectives. It explores the use of literary sources and the phenomenon of sex tourism as contributing factors to problematic representations. The chapter specifically discusses Michel Foucault’s concept of homosexual Orientalism and how this lens has shaped interpretations of same-sex relations in the East. The inclusion of an excursus on Iran provides a case study to illustrate these broader arguments.

Postcolonial discourse on sexual categories: This chapter shifts focus to postcolonial perspectives on sexual categories, analyzing how the legacy of colonialism continues to impact the understanding of sexuality in formerly colonized regions. It examines the diverse expressions of homosexuality in specific locations such as Turkey and Lebanon, acknowledging regional variations and complexities. Finally, the impact of globalization on the adaptation and evolution of sexual norms and practices in Muslim societies is discussed. The chapter highlights the need for nuanced, locally informed analysis to avoid the pitfalls of imposing Western frameworks onto non-Western realities.

Schlüsselwörter (Keywords)

Homosexuality, Muslim societies, sexual categories, Orientalism, colonialism, postcolonialism, same-sex behavior, cultural traditions, globalization, identity, power relations.

Frequently Asked Questions: A Critical Examination of Homosexuality in Muslim Societies

What is the main focus of this academic paper?

The paper critically examines the application of Western sexual categories, specifically "homosexuality," to male-male encounters in Muslim societies. It challenges the assumption of universal intolerance towards non-normative sexual behavior and advocates for a re-evaluation of terminology and its implications. The study analyzes how cultural traditions and social frames shape understandings of sexuality, investigates the impact of Orientalist and colonial discourses, and explores postcolonial perspectives on sexual categories.

What are the key themes explored in the paper?

Key themes include the problematic application of Western sexual categories to non-Western contexts; the influence of Orientalist and colonial discourses on the understanding of sexuality in Muslim societies; historical and contemporary expressions of same-sex behavior in Muslim societies; the need for nuanced definitions and terminology when studying sexuality across cultures; and the impact of globalization on sexual practices and identities in Muslim societies.

What is the methodology used in the paper?

The paper employs a critical analysis of existing research, challenging the limitations of using historical sources and questionable statistics to understand contemporary sexual practices. It emphasizes the importance of nuanced definitions and terminology, recognizing the difficulties in translating concepts across different languages and cultural frames. The study also incorporates postcolonial perspectives to analyze the impact of colonialism on the understanding of sexuality in formerly colonized regions.

How does the paper address the issue of Orientalism and colonialism?

The paper critically examines the role of Orientalist and colonial discourses in shaping Western understandings of sexuality in Muslim societies. It explores how these discourses have contributed to problematic representations of same-sex relations in the East and analyzes the impact of these historical power dynamics on contemporary understandings of sexuality.

What are the main arguments presented in the chapters?

The Introduction highlights the paradox between reported male-male sexual encounters and the official discourse. The chapter on "Muslim Homosexuality – Global Homosexuality?" critiques existing research and emphasizes the limitations of applying Western categories. "Cultural traditions and social frames for homosexual behaviour" explores the diverse expressions of same-sex behavior within Muslim societies. "The ‘other' sexuality" examines the impact of Orientalist and colonial perspectives. "Postcolonial discourse on sexual categories" analyzes the continuing influence of colonialism and the impact of globalization.

What is the conclusion of the paper?

The conclusion summarizes the findings and reinforces the need for nuanced, locally informed analysis to avoid imposing Western frameworks onto non-Western realities. It emphasizes the importance of moving beyond simplistic generalizations about sexuality in Muslim societies and understanding the complex interplay of cultural, historical, and global factors.

What are the keywords associated with this paper?