From the beginning, British trade with China was restricted to confinements in Canton, as the Qing Emperors saw the foreign intruders as a potential threat and were keen on keeping the foreigners beyond their borders and under tight control. This relationship between the two Empires only changed at the beginning of the 19th century when the British decided to renew their trade interests in the Far East. The following time was then characterized by an increase of diplomatic efforts between the expansionist British and the reluctant Qing Emperors, which was eventually disrupted by war.
In this paper, I want to analyse the development of the British political and economic relations to China, during the period of time in 1793 – 1860. This period was chosen as it marked a turning point in the Anglo-Chinese relations, causing events that immensely affected the histories of both Empires to come, and leading to the rise of one, and the downfall of the other. The year 1793 witnessed the journey of the Macartney Embassy to the court of the Qing Emperor, which was the first renewed attempt to secure trade concessions for the unsatisfied East India Company. This first diplomatic act was bound to failure due to the fundamental differences in cultural self-conception. The subsequent events demonstrate the continuation of failed awareness from two Empires each seeing themselves as the centre of the world. In this way, the tensions during this time between the powers were also influenced by the change from a cultural to an economic clash, exposing the interests of both nations in the conflict. The failure of diplomatic measurements is of particular interest in this case, as they gave rise to the catastrophic events of the two Opium Wars. In order to understand this process, I will focus on the employed strategies and policies by the British to reach their goals of opening China to trade. Further, the aim is to provide an evaluation of both countries‘ motivations during the Opium Wars, so as to understand why the British employed different and increasingly pushing tactics, or why the Qing Emperors goals were dissimilar to such an extent. The year 1860 was chosen as the end of this period, as it saw the destruction of the Imperial summer palace by the British as retaliation for their tortured ambassadors, and can be seen as a symbol for the disastrous consequences the conflict had on both sides.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. The Anglo-Chinese Trade
2.1 Origins and Development
2.2 The Rise of the East India Company
3. The Opium Conflict
3.1 Origins and Development of the Crisis
3.2 Consequences of the Opium Crises
3.3 The British Perspective
3.4 The Chinese Perspective
4. Conclusion
Target Objectives and Themes
This paper analyzes the evolution of British-Chinese political and economic relations between 1793 and 1860, focusing on how diplomatic failure and shifting trade interests culminated in the Opium Wars. It aims to evaluate the conflicting motivations of both empires and the impact of the "informal rule" strategy on these relations.
- The role of the East India Company in shaping British trade policy in China.
- The transition from diplomatic engagement to military confrontation.
- Differing cultural and political self-conceptions between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty.
- The socioeconomic impact of the opium trade on both nations.
- The transition from informal trade influence to "free trade imperialism" and forced treaties.
Excerpt from the Book
3.4 The Chinese Perspective
Akin to the British opposition to the opium trade, the Chinese authorities were well aware of the horrendous effects the substance had on the Chinese population. Kinshan, a scholar-official from Nankin noted in 1836:
“There cannot be greater evil than this [opium]. In comparison with arsenic, I pronounce it to be tenfold the greater poison, for those who smoke the drug are injured in many ways. 1st. It exhausts the animal spirits. […] 2nd. It impedes the regular performance of business. 3rd. It wastes the flesh and blood. […] 4th. It dissipates every kind of property. […] 6th. It promotes obscenity. […] 8th. It violates laws. 9th. It attacks the vitals. 10th. It destroys life. When he has pawned everything in his possession, he will pawn his wife, and sell his daughters. Such are the inevitable consequences.”60
Kinshan sums up the effects of opium in a clear and comprehensible manner, highlighting how thoroughly opium corrupted the Chinese society from within. His remarks about the wasting of the flesh and attack of the vitals are linked to the Confucian concept of the human body which was prevalent in Chinese society and which condemned the smoking of opium as an immoral act. Following Confucian philosophy, the body represented not one’s own possession, but was entrusted by the individual’s ancestors as a connection with the descendant, imposing "filial piety" on the following generations.61 Filial piety was violated when the descendant chose to willingly destroy his body, like through smoking opium. In addition, Kinshan mentions the economic catastrophe addiction imposed on the individual and his relatives, which was in turn a disaster for the whole nation.
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: Outlines the scope of the study, defining the 1793–1860 period as a critical era of transition in Anglo-Chinese relations and introducing the primary sources used for the analysis.
2. The Anglo-Chinese Trade: Details the historical origins of trade between the two empires and explains how the East India Company established its dominance in the region.
3. The Opium Conflict: Examines the escalation of tensions into the Opium Wars, analyzing the perspectives of both British and Chinese actors, and assessing the catastrophic consequences of the resulting treaties.
4. Conclusion: Synthesizes the findings, confirming how the shift from informal trade to military-enforced economic expansion permanently reshaped both empires and established new power structures in Asia.
Keywords
British Empire, Qing dynasty, East India Company, Opium Wars, Free trade, Informal rule, Trade deficit, Diplomacy, Sovereignty, Canton, Lin Zexu, Imperialism, Treaty of Nanjing, Cultural clash, Economic history.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core subject of this paper?
The paper examines the historical development of political and economic relations between the British Empire and Qing China from 1793 to 1860, specifically highlighting the transition from diplomacy to war.
What are the primary themes discussed?
Key themes include the impact of the opium trade on Chinese society, the strategic role of the East India Company, the evolution of "free trade imperialism," and the clash between Chinese tributary traditions and British economic expansionism.
What is the central research objective?
The goal is to analyze why diplomatic efforts failed and how the aggressive push by Britain for market access, combined with the Qing dynasty's resistance, led to the Opium Wars.
Which scientific methods were employed?
The work utilizes a historical-analytical approach, focusing on the evaluation of primary sources, including diplomatic correspondence and contemporary accounts, to provide a balanced view of the period.
What is covered in the main body of the work?
The main sections cover the evolution of the Anglo-Chinese trade, the rise of the East India Company, the specific causes and consequences of the opium crises, and the contrasting national perspectives from Britain and China.
Which keywords characterize this paper?
The study is characterized by terms such as British Empire, Qing dynasty, Opium Wars, informal rule, trade imperialism, and cultural confrontation.
How did the concept of "informal rule" influence British policy?
The paper argues that Britain preferred "informal rule" to maintain its economic interests and trade monopolies without the costs of formal colonial governance, resorting to military force only when those specific interests were threatened.
What was the role of the Macartney Embassy in 1793?
The Macartney Embassy served as a pivotal point that demonstrated the fundamental misunderstanding and cultural divide between the two powers, marking the beginning of the British frustration with Chinese trade restrictions.
Why did the Qing dynasty view the opium trade as an existential threat?
The trade led to massive silver outflows, caused widespread addiction, and undermined the social and bureaucratic integrity of the empire, which the Qing authorities perceived as an attempt by foreigners to destroy the nation.
- Quote paper
- Derya Ünal (Author), 2013, From Diplomacy to War - British Foreign Policy in China 1793 – 1860, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/212816
