Victimisation of women in times of war, genocide or mass slaughter has been the primary focus of the majority of explorations concerning gender and conflict. Traditionally, women are espoused as victims, at the mercy of male killers and therefore subordinate. The notoriety of brutal, horrific and incomprehensible sexual crimes against women in times of genocide has ensured that reluctance in addressing female accountability has plagued this debate. While examinations of these atrocities are imperative and indispensable in facilitating reconciliation, both psychological and social, this one-sided representation has led to a misunderstanding of the dynamic roles which women play during genocide. Whether supportive, active or auxiliary roles, women have been a vital component in endorsing and sanctioning genocidal violence historically. In Rwanda, some women not only provided assistance and encouragement to Hutu men, but also perpetrated the attacks and incited rape. The suffering of female victims cannot be fully understood without a consideration of the extensive nature of the perpetrators, both male and female. Moreover, quite the opposite of diminishing the value and significance of the victimisation of women, any examination which focuses on female agency re-balances the scales of gender inequality and consequently serves to empower women. Women should not be portrayed solely as victims. Women in the Rwandan genocide were victims and perpetrators, agents and symbols. Gender expectations which propagate the superiority of men both during and after conflict are detrimental to the reconstruction of post-genocide gender identities.
Table of Contents
1. Gender and conflict
1.1 Gender as a social and cultural construct
1.2 Established gender norms
2. The nature of female involvement
2.1 Pre-genocide gender roles in Rwanda
2.2 Who were the female perpetrators?
2.3 What was the extent of women’s participation?
2.4 What was the nature of women’s participation?
3. Women in leadership roles
3.1 Case Study: Pauline Nyiramasuhuko
4. Motivations of ‘ordinary’ women
4.1 Fear and Coercion
4.2 Habit of obeying official orders
4.3 Gendered propaganda
4.4 Jealousy and ethnic rivalry
4.5 Ideology and ethnic racism
4.6 Greed and opportunism
Research Objectives and Key Topics
This dissertation explores the largely overlooked roles and motivations of Hutu women who participated in the Rwandan genocide, challenging the stereotypical view of women solely as victims by examining their agency as perpetrators and active participants in genocidal violence.
- Analysis of gender dynamics and established cultural norms in pre-genocide Rwanda.
- Evaluation of the extent and specific nature of female involvement in the genocide.
- Case study of female leadership, specifically Pauline Nyiramasuhuko.
- Investigation into the complex motivations of 'ordinary' women, including the role of fear, propaganda, and ideology.
- Consideration of the implications of female participation for post-genocide gender identities.
Excerpt from the Book
The Nature of Female Involvement
Motivations of the Hutu women who perpetrated violence cannot be understood in separation from Rwanda’s pre-genocide gendered social situation. Women’s roles in both the wider historical spectrum and the immediate years prior to genocide were primarily subservient. Rwandan women were secondary citizens in society and inferior in status within the family. In this regard Rwandan women were seen as the property of both the men in their family and of their ethnic group as a whole. Pre-genocide Rwanda had a patriarchal culture, demonstrated by the fact that only a small minority of women held positions in governmental institutions. There are a number of popular Rwandan proverbs which allude to women and perfectly encapsulate the temperament of a disparate society based on gender boundaries: ‘the hen does not crow with the cocks’; ‘in a home where a woman speaks, there is discord’; and ‘a woman’s only wealth is a man,’ are a few examples.
Evidence to validate the argument that women were objects in Rwandan society is demonstrated by the fact that some Hutu soldiers raped women and girls of their own ethnic group. Sometimes sexual violence towards Rwandan women, in spite of ethnicity, was perpetrated during the genocide. Hence, Tutsi female victims were not only sub-human because of their ethnic group, but were also objectified as women, and this made them specifically prone to assault. Rwanda was, and still is, religiously dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. Women are socially limited in their control over labour, land, resources, property and surplus of production. These limits are backed up by law and served as an impetus to the dehumanisation which was a necessary step in steering the country towards genocide.
Summary of Chapters
1. Gender and conflict: This chapter establishes the theoretical framework by discussing gender as a fluid, socially constructed phenomenon and analyzing how traditional gender norms were challenged and reconfigured during times of conflict in Rwanda.
2. The nature of female involvement: This chapter examines the subservient status of women in pre-genocide Rwanda and investigates the extent to which women participated in the genocide through both auxiliary roles and direct perpetration.
3. Women in leadership roles: This chapter explores the participation of women in high-level positions during the genocide, using the case study of Pauline Nyiramasuhuko to illustrate the agency of female leaders in inciting violence.
4. Motivations of ‘ordinary’ women: This chapter analyzes the complex, multifaceted motivations of ordinary women, identifying fear, coercion, habit, ideological propaganda, and material greed as driving factors behind their participation.
Keywords
Rwandan Genocide, Female Perpetrators, Gender Roles, Hutu, Tutsi, Pauline Nyiramasuhuko, Gendered Propaganda, Agency, Sexual Violence, Social Construction of Gender, Patriarchy, Ideology, Conflict, Victimization, Rwanda.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core subject of this dissertation?
The dissertation focuses on the roles and motivations of Hutu women who participated in the 1994 Rwandan genocide, specifically investigating why women acted as perpetrators rather than just victims.
What are the primary themes discussed?
Central themes include gender performance in conflict, the impact of patriarchal societal structures, the influence of genocidal ideology and propaganda on women, and the challenge of viewing women as agents of violence.
What is the primary research question?
The study asks what roles Rwandan women played in the genocide and what specific motives drove them to defy established gender norms to commit or support acts of genocidal violence.
Which scientific methods are applied?
This is a qualitative, interdisciplinary study utilizing news sources, genocide literature, feminist theory, reports from international organizations, and primary source materials like interviews with convicted perpetrators and propaganda media.
What is covered in the main body of the work?
The main body examines gender theory, evaluates the extensiveness of female involvement, provides a case study of a female leader (Pauline Nyiramasuhuko), and analyzes the psychological and social motivations of 'ordinary' women.
Which keywords best describe this research?
Key terms include Rwandan Genocide, female perpetrators, gender construction, agency, sexual violence, Hutu Power, propaganda, and political ideology.
Why is Pauline Nyiramasuhuko a focus of this research?
She serves as a rare and extreme example of a female leader during the genocide, helping to prove that women are capable of asserting individual agency and leading genocidal atrocities when given the opportunity.
How does the author define the role of "ordinary" women?
The author defines them as women who were not high-level leaders but contributed to the genocide efficiency through looting, informing, providing auxiliary support, and sometimes direct violence, often motivated by ideology, fear, or material opportunity.
- Quote paper
- Leila Fielding (Author), 2012, Female Génocidaires: What was the Nature and Motivations for Hutu Female Involvement in Genocidal Violence Towards Tutsi Women During the Rwandan Genocide?, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/199827
