1. Introduction
The linguistic situation of Canadian identity has been subject of numerous debates and still there seems to be no real agreement on certain subject matters. Experts say that
"for historical reasons, Canadian English [is] the type of English associated with Southern Ontario, formerly Upper Canada, [that] has become the basis for a national norm, an imperfectly described but recognized standard across Canada.... As such, it ... has spread widely across the country, to be heard with increasing frequency among the educated, non-regionalized young in every province from the Ottowa River to the Pacific, including Newfoundland...."
However, opinions differ as to what really constitutes the uniqueness of Canadian English. The problem of a separate Canadian linguistic identity becomes best apparent in the various ways in which Canadian English has been defined by linguists as quoted by Görlach:
"Canadian English is a fairly recent hybrid which resembles American English in some respects and British English in other while exhibiting much that is singularly Canadian. It is, in fact, the composite of these characteristics which gives Canadian English its unique identity." (Avis 1973:43)
"Canadian English ... is not a composite of archaic or rustic features or a potpourri of British and American speechways but a true national language." (Bailey 1982:152)
This paper does not focus on the attempt to reconcile opposing views, but rather tries to show how far the Canadian English is both like and unlike American English as it resembles and differs from British English, yet, at the same time is distinctively Canadian, exisiting "in its own rights and [owing] its existence to the Canadians who have made it what it is."
However, in their struggle for a distinct linguistic identity "Canadians tread an ... apparently arbitrary path between British and American usage," thus Orkin writes, "with a strong leaning toward the American pattern."
Though the development of Canadian English towards a distinct linguistic identity is considered to be "not yet complete," it is the aim of the following to introduce the main linguistic characteristics of Canadian speech, focusing on the impossibility of separating phonological and grammatical Canadian features from the British and, especially, American influence.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. The Origins of the Canadian Language
3. The Characteristics if Canadian English
3.1. The historical vocabulary of Canadian English
3.2. Phonological features of Canadian English
3.2.1. The consonant system
3.2.1.1. The aspiration of voiceless stops
3.2.1.2. The variable (VtV)
3.2.1.3. The variable (ntV)
3.2.1.4. The velar nasal /ih/
3.2.1.5. The deletion of the semivowel "jod" /j/
3.2.1.6. The opposition between voiced /w/ and aspirated /hw/
3.2.1.7. The phoneme /l/
3.2.1.8. The postvocalic /r/
3.2.2. Vowels in Canadian English
3.2.2.1. Vowel neutralization
3.2.2.2. The Canadian diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aƱ/
3.2.2.3. The Canadian Raising
3.2.2.4. Stress features
3.3. The Canadian spelling
3.4. The Canadian grammar
3.4.1. The syntax of Canadian English
3.4.1.1. Prepositions
3.4.1.2. The ‘have you’ and ‘have you got’ question forms
3.4.2. The morphosyntactic structures of Canadian English
3.4.2.1. Past perfect variants of the verb to sneak and the irregular verb to dive
3.4.2.2. Past tense variants of the verb to prove and the irregular verb to drink
4. The Americanization of Canadian English
4.1. Linguistic symmetries
4.2. Linguistic asymmetries
5. Conclusion
Objectives and Core Themes
This paper examines the linguistic identity of Canadian English, exploring how it navigates between British and American influences while maintaining its own distinct characteristics. The central research objective is to analyze the interplay of phonological, lexical, and grammatical features that define Canadian English in the face of ongoing Americanization.
- The settlement history and its impact on the development of Canadian linguistic norms.
- Phonological features, including the Canadian consonant/vowel systems and "Canadian Raising."
- Spelling inconsistencies resulting from the clash between British and American orthographic standards.
- Syntactical and morphosyntactic patterns that reveal the hybrid nature of the language.
- Generational shifts and the increasing influence of American English on younger Canadian speakers.
Excerpt from the Book
3.1. The historical vocabulary of Canadian English
The distinctiveness of Canadian English from either British or American English is most easily demonstrated by means of vocabulary that is significantly Canadian. American Loyalists and British settlers felt the need to designate objects, places and concepts that were new to their European experience as they could not avoid coming into contact with people whose language, manners and customs were unfamiliar to them: the Indians and the French.9
From a linguistic point of view, Canada's fishing branch of industry is the best linguistic evidence as it provided one of the first words that entered the Canadian English language.
By the very beginning of the sixteenth century, it was the need of Catholic Europe for fish that brought European fishermen to Canada-to-be, among them were the French. One example of a direct adoptation from French language is inconnu (or connu) "unknown," a fish that is still caught in rivers and lakes of the Yukon and Northwest Territories.
In the early nineteenth century, Canada's fishing industry then moved from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. With that, Canadian English gets names for fish that were not known in the Atlantic Ocean and which have no English or French names. Accordingly, European fishermen adopted local Indian names, as illustrated by the term qualla meaning "striped," a dog salmon. 10
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: This chapter introduces the ongoing debates surrounding Canadian linguistic identity and discusses various expert definitions of Canadian English as a hybrid of British and American influences.
2. The Origins of the Canadian Language: This section details the settlement history of English-speaking Canada, specifically focusing on the arrival of Loyalists and later British immigrants.
3. The Characteristics if Canadian English: This chapter provides an overview of how native Indian and French terms contributed to the formation of early Canadianisms.
3.1. The historical vocabulary of Canadian English: This section explores how early settlers adopted new vocabulary from French and indigenous sources to describe the Canadian landscape and natural resources.
3.2. Phonological features of Canadian English: This chapter introduces prominent phonological characteristics, emphasizing the consonant and vowel systems typical of heartland Canada.
3.2.1. The consonant system: This section details the twenty-four standard consonant phonemes of Canadian English and their specific realizations.
3.2.1.1. The aspiration of voiceless stops: This part discusses the tendency to aspirate word-initial voiceless stops and the glottalization of word-final ones.
3.2.1.2. The variable (VtV): This section describes the voicing of [t] between vowels, a change prevalent in Canadian English.
3.2.1.3. The variable (ntV): This part analyzes the different phonetic realizations of the (ntV) variable, ranging from post-nasal [t] to zero realization.
3.2.1.4. The velar nasal /ih/: This section examines the alternation between velar and alveolar nasals in suffixal endings and how it correlates with social class.
3.2.1.5. The deletion of the semivowel "jod" /j/: This part explains the deletion of /j/ after alveolars, a feature shared with American English.
3.2.1.6. The opposition between voiced /w/ and aspirated /hw/: This section discusses the loss of the distinction between /w/ and /hw/ among younger speakers.
3.2.1.7. The phoneme /l/: This part notes the prevalence of the velarized lateral [ɫ] in Canadian speech.
3.2.1.8. The postvocalic /r/: This section confirms that Canadian English is a rhotic variety, maintaining /r/ in word-final positions.
3.2.2. Vowels in Canadian English: This chapter outlines the ten-vowel system and the use of diphthongs in Canadian pronunciation.
3.2.2.1. Vowel neutralization: This section covers the merger of various front and back vowels, which results in pairs like 'marry' and 'merry' becoming homophones.
3.2.2.2. The Canadian diphthongs /aɪ/ and /aƱ/: This part explores the historical origins of these diphthongs and their distinct Canadian pronunciations.
3.2.2.3. The Canadian Raising: This section describes the allophonic variation of diphthongs before voiceless consonants, a hallmark of Canadian identity.
3.2.2.4. Stress features: This part discusses the preservation of secondary stress in words of three or more syllables, contrasting with British usage.
3.3. The Canadian spelling: This chapter highlights the inconsistency of Canadian orthography due to the coexistence of British and American spelling forms.
3.4. The Canadian grammar: This chapter examines syntactical and morphosyntactical features that demonstrate the inconsistency of the language.
3.4.1. The syntax of Canadian English: This section addresses syntactical structures commonly used in educated Canadian varieties.
3.4.1.1. Prepositions: This part details unique Canadian usage of prepositions that differ significantly from British or American patterns.
3.4.1.2. The ‘have you’ and ‘have you got’ question forms: This section explores how these forms are utilized and perceived across different age groups.
3.4.2. The morphosyntactic structures of Canadian English: This part addresses how the inconsistent character of Canadian English manifests in verb forms.
3.4.2.1. Past perfect variants of the verb to sneak and the irregular verb to dive: This section details the preference for variants like 'snuck' and 'dove'.
3.4.2.2. Past tense variants of the verb to prove and the irregular verb to drink: This part analyzes the shift toward American variants in present perfect structures.
4. The Americanization of Canadian English: This chapter discusses how the proximity to the US border influences linguistic patterns, introducing the concepts of symmetrical and asymmetrical distributions.
4.1. Linguistic symmetries: This section illustrates cases where Canadian and American features differ uniquely, such as the pronunciation of 'shone' and 'badminton'.
4.2. Linguistic asymmetries: This part covers instances where American features dominate, causing Americans to be unaware of distinct Canadian terms like 'university' versus 'college'.
5. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes that while Canadian English maintains a distinct identity, it is subject to a steady generational shift toward American English norms.
Keywords
Canadian English, linguistic identity, Americanization, phonology, Canadian Raising, Canadianisms, morphology, syntax, vowel neutralization, orthography, rhoticity, historical vocabulary, sociodialectology, language variation, border communities.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary focus of this work?
The work investigates the development and current state of Canadian English, specifically how it functions as a distinct variety caught between the historical influence of British English and the increasing pressure of American English.
What are the central thematic fields covered?
The book covers four major pillars: the historical settlement origins, phonological features (like the Canadian consonant and vowel systems), orthographic inconsistencies, and unique grammatical/syntactical structures.
What is the primary research goal?
The goal is to provide a linguistic survey that demonstrates the impossibility of completely separating Canadian English from its American and British influences, while identifying what makes it uniquely Canadian.
Which scientific methods are employed?
The author uses a descriptive linguistic approach, drawing on sociodialectological studies, historical data, and comparisons of phonemic, lexical, and grammatical variables as documented by experts such as Woods, Avis, and Scargill.
What topics are discussed in the main body?
The main body systematically analyzes phonological features such as the 'Canadian Raising', the historical adoption of native and French terms, the "divided" spelling usage, and syntactic variables like prepositions and verb tense variants.
Which keywords characterize this paper?
The key concepts include Canadian English, linguistic identity, Americanization, phonology, Canadian Raising, and sociodialectology.
How does the "Canadian Raising" influence Canadian identity?
Canadian Raising is considered a very distinctive phonological feature that helps differentiate Canadian pronunciation from other forms of North American English, though the text suggests it may be threatened by generational shifts.
Why is the spelling in Canadian English described as inconsistent?
The spelling is inconsistent because Canadian media and literature often use a mix of British and American forms, failing to settle on a single, standardized Canadian orthography.
How do "symmetrical" and "asymmetrical" distributions affect language?
Symmetrical distributions occur when linguistic features are distinct on both sides of the border; asymmetrical distributions occur when an American feature is commonly used in Canada, but the unique Canadian feature does not penetrate American usage.
- Quote paper
- Kirsten Vera van Rhee (Author), 1995, The Identity of Canadian English, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/177425
