Human beings, like all animals, communicate. Communication is part and parcel of life, and sometimes it seems to occur so naturally that we tend to take it for granted. Many things go wrong, however, when we assume we have communicated, yet we have not. This book provides a broad introduction to communication while focusing on the particular communication skills that are required of a university or college student.
Functions of nonverbal communication
The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
Dance and nonverbal communication
Communication Approaches in an Organization
History of Organizational Communication
Assumptions underlying early organizational communication
Global rise of cross-cultural communication studies
Incorporating cross-cultural communications into University programs
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION AND MASS COMMUNICATION
The Process of Communication raises some issue that need to be studied.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Classification of Library Materials
Library of Congress Main Classes
Informative Vs. Interpretive Reports
Characteristics of a Good Report
LETTER - TEXT FORM
Note: Letter of transmittal or presentation
Letter of Presentation
Report
PARAGRAPHING
Definitions
Unity in a Paragraph
Development
Types of Specifics to Use
Logical Order/Pattern
Coherence
Grammar
Mechanics and Spelling
Tasks
QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUMMARY
THINGS TO NOTE CAREFULLY
Omit
Do not
TASK I
TYPES OF SUMMARIES
PROCESS OF MAKING A SUMMARY
TASK II
TASK III
VI. RESEARCH PAPER
The Research Paper
Planning Your Research Paper
The Research Proposal
VII. DOCUMENTATION
Plagiarism
Using Sources
Quotation
VIII. ORTHOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS
Punctuation in Writing
Capitalization
Numerals
Introduction
Purpose and Meaning of Reading
Foundations of Reading
Importance of Reading
Reading More Efficiently
Effective Reading
Some hints on how to read faster
Levels of Reading
Systematic Skimming or Pre-reading
Some suggestions about how to do it
Rules of Reading a Book Analytically
Syntopical Reading
Essence of Active Reading
The SQ3R Study Method
Objective of the Section
PLANNING A SPEECH
Objectives
PRESENTING A PUBLIC SPEECH
URBANISATION: A BLESSING OR A CURSE?
REFERENCES
GS 101 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
I. INTRODUCTION
Human beings, like all animals, communicate. Communication is part and parcel of life, and sometimes it seems to occur so naturally that we tend to take it for granted. Many things go wrong, however, when we assume we have communicated, yet we have not. This book provides a broad introduction to communication while focusing on the particular communication skills that are required of a university or college student.
What is Communication?
There are many definitions of communication. Different thinkers have developed different definitions of communication depending on which aspect of communication they wish to emphasize. Some definitions are broad enough to capture the fact that communication is not an activity that is restricted to human beings, but many definitions emphasize the human aspects of communication.
The term communication is from Latin “communicare”, ‘to make common’. These are some definitions:
a) “Communication may be defined as social interaction through messages.” (Gerbner, 1967)
b) It is “the transmission of information, ideas, attitudes or emotions from one person or group to another (or others) primarily through symbols.” (Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969)
c) “Human communication is a conscious or unconscious, intentional or unintentional process in which feelings and ideas are expressed in verbal and nonverbal messages. (Berko, et al, 1989)
d) “Communication is a process of understanding and sharing meaning.” (Pearson & Nelson, 1997)
What stands out clearly from these and other definitions of communication is that communication is a process. It involves a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver. Communication occurs within a given context e.g. in the classroom, at the cafeteria and at home among other contexts. It involves interaction through some medium.
PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
1. To Inform
2. To Motivate
3. Influence/Persuade
Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
The basis of communication is the interaction between people. Verbal communication is one way for people to communicate face-to-face. Some of the key components of verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language. Verbal vs. oral communication
Scholars in this field usually use a strict sense of the term “verbal“, meaning “of or concerned with words,” and do not use “verbal communication” as a synonym for oral or spoken communication. Thus, vocal sounds that are not considered to be words, such as a grunt, or singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are generally understood as forms of verbal communication, as both make use of words — although like speech, both may contain paralinguistic elements and often occur alongside nonverbal messages. Nonverbal communication can occur through any sensory channel — sight, sound, smell, touch or taste. NVC is important as:
“When we speak (or listen), our attention is focused on words rather than body language. But our judgement includes both. An audience is simultaneously processing both verbal and nonverbal cues. Body movements are not usually positive or negative in and of themselves; rather, the situation and the message will determine the appraisal.” (Givens, 2000, p. 4)
Uniforms have both a functional and a communicative purpose. This man's clothes identify him as male and a police officer; his badges and shoulder sleeve insignia give information about his job and rank.
Elements such as physique, height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, odors, and clothing send nonverbal messages during interaction.
Physical environment
At birth, most people have vocal cords, which produce sounds. As a child grows it learns how to form these sounds into words. Some words may be imitative of natural sounds, but others may come from expressions of emotion, such as laughter or crying. Words alone have no meaning. Only people can put meaning into words. As meaning is assigned to words, language develops, which leads to the development of speaking.
The actual origin of language is subject to considerable speculation. Some theorists believe it is an outgrowth of group activities such as working together or dancing. Others believe that language developed from basic sounds and gestures.
Over 3,000 languages and major dialects are spoken in the world today. The development of languages reflects class, gender, profession, age group, and other social factors. The huge variety of languages usually creates difficulties between different languages, but even within a single language there can be many problems in understanding.
Through speaking we try to eliminate this misunderstanding, but sometimes this is a very hard thing to do. Just as we assume that our messages are clearly received, so we assume that because something is important to us, it is important to others. As time has proven this is not at all true. Many problems can arise is speaking and the only way to solve these problems is through experience.
Speaking can be looked at in two major areas: interpersonal and public speaking. Since the majority of speaking is an interpersonal process, to communicate effectively we must not simply clean up our language, but learn to relate to people.
In interpersonal speaking, etiquette is very important. To be an effective communicator one must speak in a manner that is not offending to the receiver. Etiquette also plays an important role in an area that has developed in most all business settings: hierarchical communication. In business today, hierarchical communication is of utmost importance to all members involved.
The other major area of speaking is public speaking. From the origin of time, it has been obvious that some people are just better public speakers than others. Because of this, today a good speaker can earn a living by speaking to people in a public setting. Some of the major areas of public speaking are speaking to persuade, speaking to inform, and speaking to inspire or motivate
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Non-verbal communication as: ". . . the exchange of messages primarily through non-linguistic means, including: kinesics (body language), facial expressions and eye contact, tactile communication, space and territory, environment, paralanguage (vocal but non-linguistic cues), and the use of silence and time." Verbal communication is organized by language; non-verbal communication is not. Nonverbal communications (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e, language is not one source of communication, there are other means also. NVC can be communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. NVC can be communicated through object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, symbols and infographics. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons.
Communication is the transfer of information from one person to another. Most of us spend about 75 percent of our waking hours communicating our knowledge, thoughts, and ideas to others. However, most of us fail to realize that a great deal of our communication is of a non-verbal form as opposed to the oral and written forms. Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions, and positioning within groups. It may also include the way we wear our clothes or the silence we keep.
Categories and Features of Non-verbal communication
Categories:
Physical: This is the personal type of communication. It includes facial expressions, tone of voice, sense of touch, sense of smell, and body motions.
Aesthetic: This is the type of communication that takes place through creative expressions: playing instrumental music, dancing, painting and sculpturing.
Signs: This is the mechanical type of communication, which includes the use of signal flags, the 21-gun salute, horns, and sirens.
Symbolic: This is the type of communication that makes use of religious, status, or ego-building symbols.
Knowledge of non-verbal communication is important to managers who serve as leaders of organizational "teams," for at least two reasons:
- To function effectively as a team leader the manager must interact with the other members successfully. Non-verbal cues, when interpreted correctly, provide him with one means to do so.
- The team members project attitudes and feelings through non-verbal communication. Some personal needs such as approval, growth, achievement, and recognition may be met in effective teams. The extent to which these needs are met is closely related to how perceptive the team leader and team members are to non-verbal communication in themselves and in others on the team.
Static Features
Distance: The distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status or the intensity of the exchange.
Orientation: People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-side, or even back-to-back. For example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-side while competitors frequently face one another.
Posture: Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. These are not the elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs crossed or our arms folded? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.
Physical Contact: haking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on the back all convey messages. They reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or lack of) attraction.
Dynamic Features
Facial Expressions: A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey information. Facial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored constantly by the recipient. There is evidence that the meaning of these expressions may be similar across cultures.
Gestures: One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. While some gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are individually learned and idiosyncratic.
Looking: A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. The frequency of contact may suggest either interest or boredom.
The above list shows that both static features and dynamic features transmit important information from the sender to the receiver.
Classification of non –verbal communication.
However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction.
Environmental factors such as furniture, architectural style, interior decorating, lighting conditions, colors, temperature, noise, and music affect the behavior of communicators during interaction. The furniture itself can be seen as a nonverbal message
Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted.
The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures and different settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space.(Scott Mclean, 1969) The distance between communicators will also depend on sex, status, and social role.
Chronemics
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and react to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages.
Kinesics is the study of body movements, facial expressions, and gestures. It was developed by anthropologist Ray L. Birdwhistell in the 1950s. Kinesic behaviors include mutual gaze, smiling, facial warmth or pleasantness, childlike behaviors, direct body orientation, and the like.
Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person’s left side is parallel to the other’s right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or a decrease in a backwards lean also signify positive sentiment during communication. Posture is understood through such indicators as direction of lean, body orientation, arm position, and body openness.
A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning. They may be articulated with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head, face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes. The boundary between language and gesture, or verbal and nonverbal communication, can be hard to identify.
Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching.[10] These behaviors are referred to as "adaptor" and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch.
Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are: smiling, touching, open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are known to be high contact cultures.
Functions of nonverbal communication
Argyle (1970) put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations.
Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:
- Express emotions
- Express interpersonal attitudes
- To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners
- Self-presentation of one’s personality
- Rituals (greetings)
The relation between verbal and nonverbal communication
The relative importance of verbal and nonverbal communication
An interesting question is: When two people are communicating face-to-face, how much of the meaning is communicated verbally, and how much is communicated non-verbally? This was investigated by Albert Mehrabian and reported in two papers. The latter paper concluded: "It is suggested that the combined effect of simultaneous verbal, vocal, and facial attitude communications is a weighted sum of their independent effects - with coefficients of .07, .38, and .55, respectively." This "rule" that clues from spoken words, from the voice tone, and from the facial expression, contribute 7 %, 38 %, and 55 % respectively to the total meaning, is widely cited. It is presented on all types of popular courses with statements like "scientists have found out that . . . ". In reality, however, it is extremely weakly founded. First, it is based on the judgment of the meaning of single taperecorded words, i.e. a very artificial context. Second, the figures are obtained by combining results from two different studies which maybe cannot be combined. Third, it relates only to the communication of positive versus negative emotions. Fourth, it relates only to women, as men did not participate in the study.
Interaction of verbal and nonverbal communication
When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating.
Repeating
"Repeating" consists of using gestures to strengthen a verbal message, such as pointing to the object of discussion.
Conflicting
Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration. When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions.
Complementing
Accurate interpretation of messages is made easier when nonverbal and verbal communication complement each other. Nonverbal cues can be used to elaborate on verbal messages to reinforce the information sent when trying to achieve communicative goals; messages have been shown to be remembered better when nonverbal signals affirm the verbal exchange.
Substituting
Nonverbal behavior is sometimes used as the sole channel for communication of a message. People learn to identify facial expressions, body movements, and body positioning as corresponding with specific feelings and intentions. Nonverbal signals can be used without verbal communication to convey messages; when nonverbal behavior does not effectively communicate a message, verbal methods are used to enhance understanding.
Regulating
Nonverbal behavior also regulates our conversations. For example, touching someone's arm can signal that you want to talk next or interrupt.
Accenting/Moderating
Nonverbal signals are used to alter the interpretation of verbal messages. Touch, voice pitch, and gestures are some of the tools people use to accent or amplify the message that is sent; nonverbal behavior can also be used to moderate or tone down aspects of verbal messages as well. For example, a person who is verbally expressing anger may accent the verbal message by shaking a fist.
Dance and nonverbal communication
Dance is a form of nonverbal communication that requires the same underlying faculty in the brain for conceptualization, creativity and memory as does verbal language in speaking and writing. Means of self-expression, both forms have vocabulary (steps and gestures in dance), grammar (rules for putting the vocabulary together) and meaning. Dance, however, assembles (choreographs) these elements in a manner that more often resembles poetry, with its ambiguity and multiple, symbolic and elusive meanings.
Levels of communication
Intrapersonal communication-
Intrapersonal communication is communicating with one's self, that is any for of relaying
messages to your own person.
Normally successful communication requires having an independent sender and receiver,
who sens messages back and forth between them. This definition is currently challenged,
there are some people who consider intrapersonal communication too useful to be
discounted.
Whether or not intrapersonal communication is a valid form of communication, the
following actions are considered intrapersonal communication:
- Dreaming (especially daydreaming and lucid dreaming)
- Talking to oneself. This action is normal, since often saying and hearing again helps a person retain information. It becomes abnormal when a person talks to oneself in socially inappropriate situations.
- Your internal monologue, any thoughts you have about what is happening around you.
- Gesturing while you think.
The basis for what you communicate with others is your ability to communicate with yourself. Those people who tend to know who they are, what they believe in and what their attitudes are and to have a clear understanding of their beliefs, values, and expectations are much more likely to be able to communicate these ideas to others, (Berko, et al, p. 72).
Intrapersonal communication involves the gathering, storing, and retrieving of information and is surrounded by three components:
1. The cognitive component, which includes meaning and language.
2. The affective component, which includes attitudes and self-concept
3. The operational component, which includes listening and speaking
(Goss, B. in Pearson and Nelson, p.16)
Intrapersonal communication involves communication with ourselves. You may have found yourself trying to mentally explain things that have happened in your life. You may have spent quiet hours evaluating your interaction with other people. The next time you notice that you are ‘talking to yourself’, either silently or aloud, or are engaged in trying to evaluate relationships and occurrences in your life, recognise that you are engaging in intrapersonal communication. Intrapersonal communication is something that we do all the time, even if we are rarely aware of it.
Interpersonal communication-
Another facet of communication in the organization is the process of face-to-face, interpersonal communication, between individuals. Such communication may take several forms. Messages may be verbal (that is, expressed in words), or they may not involve words at all but consist of gestures, facial expressions, and certain postures ("body language"). Nonverbal messages may even stem from silence.
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
When we create meaning with another or others, we are engaging in interpersonal communication. Pearson and Nelson (1994, p.16) define interpersonal communication as “the process of understanding and sharing meaning between ourselves and at least one other person where mutual opportunities for speaking and listening occur”.
Do we really listen to other people? Or are we forever planning what we will say next? Good communication requires good listening skills. You need to listen to the actual words of the other(s) as well as their tone of voice. Of importance also is keen observation of their body movements and posture. Many messages are misunderstood and many relationships break down because of our failure to listen.
Research by P.T. Rankin (1926) showed that we spend more than 40% of our time listening. E.K. Werner (1975) investigated school and university students and found that they spend 55% of their time listening, 13% reading and 8% writing. (Pearson and Nelson, p.62).
We engage in different types of listening, depending on our goal. Active listening is purposive listening. Entailed in this is the provision of feedback by the listener to the speaker and vice versa, verbally and/or non-verbally. Emphatic listening is also purposive, but demands demonstration of understanding and acceptance of the feelings of the speaker. Critical listening is the type of listening that assesses. It questions and challenges speakers’ messages, their accuracy and meaningfulness.
Although we need the capacity to hear in order to listen, reception of stimuli is but a basic prerequisite to this important function of communication. As the listener receives the message, it undergoes a screening process for interpretation based upon the listener’s personality, background, beliefs, attitudes, values etc. This screening process is perceptual filtering. Perception is the process by which we select, organise and interpret sensory stimuli and information in terms of our world-view.
“Perception may be regarded as information which is taken in through the senses, processed by the brain, stored by the memory and produces some kind of physical or mental response” (Ellis & McClintock, 1992, p.1).
Our perception differs from that of others since it is a function of your physical and mental make-up as well as your environment. You may have noticed that it is easier to communicate with people who ‘see’ things as you do.
If listening involved only reception and perceptual screening of messages, communication task would be much simpler than it actually is. Unfortunately, human beings have limited concentration spans. For how long can you give your full and total attention to something? Not very long. “Professional speakers and teachers have observed that listeners with whom they work cannot handle much beyond a fifteen-minute time frame” (Berko, p.107).
When you engage in tasks that require listening for long spans of time e.g. lectures, seminars etc., it helps to learn the skill of concentration. It helps to focus on mentally summarising the content and spotting the major points. A classroom situation will require that you make notes as an aid-to-memory. You will study note making skills in chapter..., but remember, it all begins by developing good listening skills.
It is easier to pay attention when you find the content easy to understand and interesting. In the same way that you find some conversations interesting and stimulating, while others are dull and tedious, you will find that some units appeal to you more than others. It is important not to be the kind of student who excels only in that which is appealing and interesting. Concentrate on all the required content, so as not to compromise your grade point average.
Assuming that the listener has paid attention to the message, he/she must then decode it and assign meaning to it. Listeners often believe or disbelieve messages depending on how the speaker sounds. A speaker who gives his/her subjective opinion on an issue, but sounds composed and assertive may find that listeners interpret the message as fact. Conversely, a speaker who provides facts in a flustered and unassertive manner may find his/her listeners doubting the message! Listeners must therefore listen very critically to messages in order to assign the correct interpretation.
Finally, the listener, having assigned meaning to the message, engages in internal or external reactions e.g. storing the message mentally or responding with feedback to the speaker.
Berko (p.12) lists the following suggestions that can help develop your skills as a listener:
1. Recognise that both the sender and receiver share the responsibility for effective communication.
2. Suspend judgements - do not make premature assessments of speakers before comprehending their entire message.
3. Be a patient listener.
4. Avoid “ego-speak”, i.e. boosting one’s ego by speaking only about what we want to talk about.
5. Be careful with emotional responses to words since such responses may create a ‘block’ to our reception of messages.
6. Be aware that posture affects listening. Do not slump and stare out of the window. Instead maintain upright posture, with your feet on the floor, and look at he speaker.
7. Make a conscious effort to listen.
8. Control distractions in the environment.
9. Tune in to the speaker’s cues. Speakers give clues about what is important, e.g. by increasing volume, creating stress (emphasis), using pause etc. Their word choice also guides the listener in interpreting the message e.g. therefore shows cause, subsequently shows result, finally shows last point in a series of points.
10. Paraphrase. When responding to the speaker, say what you have gathered from the message in your own words. This helps the speaker assess whether you have correctly interpreted his/her message.
11. Listen actively. Concentrate on understanding the message and providing meaningful feedback.
Interpersonal communication involves more than just listening and providing feedback. The success of interpersonal communication hinges on:
1. The nature and quality of the information received.
2. The nature and quality of the relationship between the people concerned.
Interpersonal communication involves more than just listening and providing feedback (based on nature and quality of information received). It also depends on interpersonal relationships (nature and quality of the relationships between the people concerned).
For good interpersonal communication, we need to:
1. Know ourselves
2. Be able to assess others accurately
Knowledge of Self
Do you have a high degree of self-awareness? Can you answer some basic questions about who you are? Are you assertive? Shy? Talkative? A risk-taker? Ancient wisdom exhorts us to ‘know thyself’ and ‘to thine own self be true’
“Self-knowledge, commanded by the oracle at Delphi by the inscription “know thyself”, is regarded by Socrates as the beginning of wisdom,” while Shakespeare, (the famous English poet and playwright [1564 – 1616]) writes:
‘This above all: to thine own self be true,
And it must follow, as the night the day,
Thou canst not then be false to any man.”
Hamlet, Act 1, Scene 3
(Microsoft ® Encarta ® Premium Suite 2005. © 1993-2004 Microsoft Corporation).
Know who you are and do not pretend to be who you are not. It is in knowing our strengths, and focusing on what we are really good at that we reach the pinnacle of human achievement - we achieve self-actualization. Lack of knowledge of the self leads to poor choices in life, with all the accompanying frustrations.
Self-concept is the view have of ourselves. How do ‘see’ yourself socially? intellectually? physically? Your perception of yourself in totality is your self concept. The way you view yourself has an impact on the interpersonal communication that you engage in. If you think you are intelligent, articulate and interesting, you are likely to communicate in a more confident manner than a person who believes he/she is unintelligent, inarticulate, uninteresting etc.
Since you are what you think, you enact your own view of yourself. However, it is important to note that other people play a major role in the development of self concept. If you were constantly told you are ‘stupid’ as you were growing up, no doubt, this has become part of your self concept today. A clear concept of self is important for both intrapersonal and interpersonal communication. The Johari Window is a framework for defining one’s self concept.
The Open Self represents that which is known to you and others e.g. your name, your love for high-heeled shoes etc. The Blind Self represents that which is known to others but not to you e.g. when you are perplexed you rub your left ear, you smile most when fibbing etc. The Hidden Self represents that which you know about yourself, but which is unknown to others e.g. you enjoy reading romances, but since it is not considered manly, noone should know of it. The Unknown Self represents that which is unknown to others and unknown to you e.g. the underlying reason behind your unexpected bursts of anger.
The size of the quadrants differs from individual to individual. The communication pattern of a person with a very large hidden area reflects attempts to conceal the self, while a person with a large open area communicates very freely and frankly. Effective communication is enhanced when the open area is larger than the rest. One can reduce the blind area by seeking feedback from others. The hidden areas can be reduced through self-disclosure. Psychological intervention sometimes brings the unknown areas to light.
The Johari Window can help you understand yourself better and see why others respond to you the way they do. It can help you make the necessary choices to eventually become the person you aspire to be. There are some things which may prove difficult to change because they are determined by our inherited genes, but much of what we are is a function of our social and physical environment. The Johari Window can also enable you to increase objectivity in the way you perceive others.
Communication Approaches in an Organization
Informal and Formal Communication are used in an organization. Informal communication: Informal communication, generally associated with interpersonal, horizontal communication, was primarily seen as a potential hindrance to effective organizational performance. This is no longer the case. Informal communication has become more important to ensuring the effective conduct of work in modern organizations.
Top-down approach: This is also known as downward communication. This approach is used by the Top Level Management to communicate to the lower levels. This is used to implement policies, gudelines, etc. In this type of organizational communication, distortion of the actual information occurs. This could be made effective by feedbacks.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication is a subfield of the larger discipline of communication studies. Organizational communication, as a field, is the consideration, analysis, and criticism of the role of communication in organizational contexts.
History of Organizational Communication
The field traces its lineage through business information, business communication, and early mass communication studies published in the 1930s through the 1950s. Until then, organizational communication as a discipline consisted of a few professors within speech departments who had a particular interest in speaking and writing in business settings. The current field is well established with its own theories and empirical concerns distinct from other communication subfields and other approaches to organizations.
Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and recognizing the importance of communication in the organizing process, and in using the term "organizational communication". Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon wrote in 1947 about "organization communications systems", saying communication is "absolutely essential to organizations"
In the 1950s, organizational communication focused largely on the role of communication in improving organizational life and organizational output. In the 1980s, the field turned away from a business-oriented approach to communication and became concerned more with the constitutive role of communication in organizing. In the 1990s, critical theory influence on the field was felt as organizational communication scholars focused more on communication's possibilities to oppress and liberate organizational members.
Assumptions underlying early organizational communication
Some of the main assumptions underlying much of the early organizational communication research were:
- Humans act rationally. Sane people behave in rational ways, they generally have access to all of the information needed to make rational decisions they could articulate, and therefore will make rational decisions, unless there is some breakdown in the communication process.
- Formal logic and empirically verifiable data ought to be the foundation upon which any theory should rest. All we really need to understand communication in organizations is (a) observable and replicable behaviors that can be transformed into variables by some form of measurement, and (b) formally replicable syllogisms that can extend theory from observed data to other groups and settings
- Communication is primarily a mechanical process, in which a message is constructed and encoded by a sender, transmitted through some channel, then received and decoded by a receiver. Distortion, represented as any differences between the original and the received messages, can and ought to be identified and reduced or eliminated.
- Organizations are mechanical things, in which the parts (including employees functioning in defined roles) are interchangeable. What works in one organization will work in another similar organization. Individual differences can be minimized or even eliminated with careful management techniques.
- Organizations function as a container within which communication takes place. Any differences in form or function of communication between that occurring in an organization and in another setting can be identified and studied as factors affecting the communicative activity.
Communications networks
Networks are another aspect of direction and flow of communication. Bavelas has shown that communication patterns, or networks, influence groups in several important ways. Communication networks may affect the group's completion of the assigned task on time, the position of the de facto leader in the group, or they may affect the group members' satisfaction from occupying certain positions in the network. Although these findings are based on laboratory experiments, they have important implications for the dynamics of communication in formal organizations.
There are several patterns of communication:
- "Chain",
- "Wheel",
- "Star",
- "All-Channel" network,
- "Circle"
The Chain can readily be seen to represent the hierarchical pattern that characterizes strictly formal information flow, "from the top down," in military and some types of business organizations. The Wheel can be compared with a typical autocratic organization, meaning one-man rule and limited employee participation. The Star is similar to the basic formal structure of many organizations. The All-Channel network, which is an elaboration of Bavelas's Circle used by Guetzkow, is analogous to the free-flow of communication in a group that encourages all of its members to become involved in group decision processes. The All-Channel network may also be compared to some of the informal communication networks.
Direction of communication
If it's considered formal communications as they occur in traditional military organizations, messages have a "one-way" directional characteristic. In the military organization, the formal communication proceeds from superior to subordinate, and its content is presumably clear because it originates at a higher level of expertise and experience. Military communications also carry the additional assumption that the superior is responsible for making his communication clear and understandable to his subordinates. This type of organization assumes that there is little need for two-way exchanges between organizational levels except as they are initiated by a higher level. Because messages from superiors are considered to be more important than those from subordinates, the implicit rule is that communication channels, except for prescribed information flows, should not be cluttered by messages from subordinates but should remain open and free for messages moving down the chain of command. "Juniors should be seen and not heard," is still an unwritten, if not explicit, law of military protocol.
Vestiges of one-way flows of communication still exist in many formal organizations outside the military, and for many of the same reasons as described above. Although management recognizes that prescribed information must flow both downward and upward, managers may not always be convinced that two-wayness should be encouraged. For example, to what extent is a subordinate free to communicate to his superior that he understands or does not understand a message? Is it possible for him to question the superior, ask for clarification, suggest modifications to instructions he has received, or transmit unsolicited messages to his superior, which are not prescribed by the rules? To what extent does the one-way rule of direction affect the efficiency of communication in the organization, in addition to the morale and motivation of subordinates?
These are not merely procedural matters but include questions about the organizational climate, pr psychological atmosphere in which communication takes place. Harold Leavitt has suggested a simple experiment that helps answer some of these questions. А group is assigned the task of re-creating on paper a set of rectangular figures, first as they are described by the leader under one-way conditions, and second as they are described by the leader under two-way conditions.(A different configuration of rectangles is used in the second trial.) In the one-way trial, the leader's back is turned to the group. He describes the rectangles as he sees them. No one in the group is allowed to ask questions and no one may indicate by any audible or visible sign his understanding or his frustration as he attempts to follow the leader's directions. In the two-way trial, the leader faces the group. In this case, the group may ask for clarifications on his description of the rectangles and he can not only see but also can feel and respond to the emotional reactions of group members as they try to re-create his instructions on paper.
On the basis of a number of experimental trials similar to the one described above, Leavitt formed these conclusions:
- One-way communication is faster than two-way communication.
- Two-way communication is more accurate than one-way communication.
- Receivers are more sure of themselves and make more correct judgments of how right or wrong they are in the two-way system.
- The sender feels psychologically under attack in the two-way system, because his receivers pick up his mistakes and oversights and point them out to him.
- The two-way method is relatively noisier and looks more disorderly. The one-way method, on the other hand, appears neat and efficient to an outside observer.
Thus, if speed is necessary, if a businesslike appearance is important, if a manager does not want his mistakes recognized, and if he wants to protect his power, then one-way communication seems preferable. In contrast, if the manager wants to get his message across, or if he is concerned about his receivers' feeling that they are participating and are making a contribution, the two-way system is better.
CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Cross-cultural communication (also frequently referred to as intercultural communication, which is also used in a different sense, though) is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures.
Cross-cultural communication tries to bring together such a relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.
Cross-cultural communication, as in many scholarly fields, is a combination of many other fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations.
Global rise of cross-cultural communication studies
The study of cross-cultural communication is fast becoming a global research area. As a result, cultural differences in the study of cross-cultural communication can already be found. For example, cross-cultural communication is generally considered to fall within the larger field of communication studies in the US, but it is emerging as a sub-field of applied linguistics in the UK.
As the application of cross-cultural communication theory to foreign language education is increasingly appreciated around the world, cross-cultural communication classes can be found within foreign language departments of some universities, while other schools are placing cross-cultural communication programs in their departments of education.
Incorporating cross-cultural communications into University programs
With the increasing pressures and opportunities of globalization, the incorporation of international networking alliances has become an “essential mechanism for the internationalization of higher education”. Many universities from around the world have taken great strides to increase intercultural understanding through processes of organizational change and innovations. In general, university processes revolve around four major dimensions which include: organizational change, curriculum innovation, staff development, and student mobility. Ellingboe emphasizes these four major dimensions with his own specifications for the internationalization process. His specifications include: (1) college leadership; (2) faculty members' international involvement in activities with colleagues, research sites, and institutions worldwide; (3) the availability, affordability, accessibility, and transferability of study abroad programs for students; (4) the presence and integration of international students, scholars, and visiting faculty into campus life; and (5) international co-curricular units (residence halls, conference planning centers, student unions, career centers, cultural immersion and language houses, student activities, and student organizations).
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION AND MASS COMMUNICATION
So far, we have established that intrapersonal communication takes place within oneself and involves thought processing and decision making. Interpersonal communication involves an exchange between two or more persons e.g. conversations, interviews, discussions etc.
In addition, there exists public communication, where the speaker engages an audience. This may be done directly in face-to-face situations or indirectly using various media e.g. radio, internet, television etc. You will learn more about public communication in Chapter VII and by observing your own lecturers in large classes.
Mass Communication, on the other hand comprises ‘the institutions and techniques by which specialised groups employ technological devices (press, radio, films etc.) to disseminate symbolic content to large heterogeneous and widely dispersed audiences.’ Janowitz (1968) in McQuail and Windhal (1981), p.4). This type of communication is usually impersonal and characterised by the intervention of institutionalised policies and arrangements between sender and receiver.
All these types of communication are important to you in terms of giving and/or receiving information, and shaping your attitudes and values.
Finally, you will have already realised that you are part of an organisation. All organisations have certain established channels through which communication should take place. This may take place through formal and/or informal channels. Formal channels are set up by organisation and cater for communication in all directions.
You ought to take an interest in discovering how your institution is organised. Your student’s handbook should provide you with guidelines on the appropriate channels of communication for various circumstances.
Models of Communication
The Process of Communication raises some issue that need to be studied.
Communication research has its roots in the desire to increase efficiency and effectiveness in various spheres of life, including education, telecommunication, advertising and public relations. Various communication models have been developed with the aim of capturing the essence of the process of communication.
A model is a pictorial depiction of how communication looks if we diagram it. (Pearson & Nelson, 1993, p.10). One of the early, basic models was the sender-message-channel-receiver (SMCR) model, which is essentially a linear model and can be diagrammatically represented as follows.
Linear model (SMCR)
Here, communication is seen as a linear process in which a speaker encodes a message and sends it to a receiver through various channels e.g. audio, visual, etc. The receiver then decodes the message.
The linear model was modified from the 1950’s onwards, resulting in several different models which took into consideration additional aspects of communication e.g. the differences between interpersonal and mass communication, the purposiveness of communication, feedback in communication etc. Thus, based on the view that communication involves a sender, a message, a channel and a receiver, various models have evolved which reflect communication in different contexts.
The interactional model tries to capture the interactional and dynamic nature of communication and, like the linear model, the sender encodes a message and sends it to a receiver through various channels. The receiver decodes the message received. He/she then encodes feedback which is sent to the source (sender). The sender encodes a new message which is adapted based on the feedback received.
Example
Sender : Meet me at the library (message)
Receiver : Which one? (feedback)
Sender : CUEA library (adapted message)
People engage in interaction and this helps ensure that the message has been communicated as intended.
Example:
Sender : The chicken is ready to eat
Receiver : What shall I feed it?
Sender : No! I mean, the one we roasted is now cooked.
As you can see from the dialogue, the receiver also plays the role of a sender and provides feedback to the first sender. In this instance, the sender realises that miscommunication has occurred due to ‘noise’. Noise refers to any barrier that impedes effective communication. In this example, ambiguity led to a brief misunderstanding. With feedback, the sender was able to clarify his/her message, thus preventing further misunderstanding.
Transactional Model
Other thinkers have viewed communication as transaction. The process of encoding and decoding messages does not necessarily occur serially. The transactional model suggests that communication involves encoding and decoding messages and these processes may occur simultaneously. People simultaneously play the role of both sender and receiver. As a sender, person A asks: “Would you like a cup of tea?” As a sender, person A anticipates affirmative reply as Person B smiles and nods. People encode and decode both verbal and non-verbal messages in the process of communication.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
The communication process is interfered with by what is commonly called ‘noise’. Noise refers to all barriers to effective communication. Such barriers can occur at any stage in the communication process. Here, we shall examine them under two broad headings: linguistic barriers to communication and non-linguistic barriers to communication.
Linguistic Barriers
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is the most prominent means of communication used by human beings. Language has many qualities that are similar to other forms of animal communication, but it also has unique or outstanding features of its own, for example, language is highly structured/patterned and productive. The structured nature of language has fascinated language students through the ages, and resulted in numerous grammar books which attempt to unravel the pattern. They attempt to analyse and detail the structure of various languages of the world. The productive nature of language is also known as creativity. Through language, we express thoughts that have never been expressed before, or we find unique ways of expressing existing concepts. As a result, language is dynamic - it grows and changes over time. In fact, languages that fail to grow remain static in an evolving world. Eventually, they become ‘dead’ languages because no one communicates in them any more.
Linguistic communication involves a two-way exchange between speaker and listener in which the roles of talking and listening are changed. It is only successful when the listener decodes the same message that the speaker has encoded.
As a student, language is your most valuable tool for communication. Time and again, you will be called upon to express yourself verbally in both formal and informal circumstances. You will also be called upon to express yourself using the written channel. When you use language, whether spoken or written, you will find that several barriers exist that may prevent your message from getting across to the receiver as you intended. Examples:
Non – Linguistic Barriers
(i) Cultural differences – these occur when people come from different social and religious backgrounds.
(ii) Poor choice of channel – e.g. putting a message targeting rural peasant farmers in Central Kenya on the Internet.
(iii) No feedback – absence of two-way communication often leads to misunderstandings and lack of acceptance.
Although language stands prominent as a means of communication among human beings, it is worth noting that people pass on messages not only by what they say, but also by what they do. Body movements e.g. shrugging, and use of space (proxemics) communicates volumes to other people. Thus, gestures, facial expressions and proximity often pass on accurate non-verbal messages, even when the verbal message is different. For example, you may inadvertently reveal hidden thoughts such as ‘I don’t trust you’ through your body language even when you are laughing and smiling with someone.
X. STUDY SKILLS
Why study?
• To improve yourselves by gaining knowledge?
• To pass the exam, get a degree and a job in future?
Our perception of why we are studying determines the way we approach our work and the benefit we are likely to derive from study.
Study involves reading, interpretation, analysis, discussion and presentation in oral or written format.
GENERAL STUDYING TECHNIQUES
(a) Groundwork research
A student needs to gather as much information on his/her courses as possible.
- Speak to students who have taken the course before you. They are a rich source of information on useful texts, different areas, the quality of teaching, etc.
- Read broad introductions to the courses or read course modules you expect to pursue even before lectures begin. This helps you assimilate information much faster during the actual learning process.
- Attend first lectures, even those you may not have registered for. You may want to change your courses when this is allowed. This will give you a good idea as to whether you are ready for these courses.
- Get an official copy of the full syllabus for each course immediately. This is an invaluable guide to the student. It shows what is expected in each unit and allows planning studies effectively.
- Get details on the marking system.
(b) Cultivate the right attitude
The spirit with which one does one’s work is crucial to success. Student life should not be regarded as a time to be ploughed through in order to pass the required exams. This kind of attitude may lead to failure. Student life should be regarded as a valuable time of growth and discovery.
(c) Keep a balance
It is important for students to understand themselves. It may be more effective to put in fewer hours of high concentration than many hours of limited concentration. Each person needs to establish a rhythm of periods involving intense study with sessions of socializing, relaxing and helping with charity; (all extra-curricular activities will enrich one’s educational experience).
(d) Take a business-like approach
Student life has to be lived efficiently. This means developing a regular pattern of study that is maximally efficient.
(e) Keep ahead
Keeping ahead applies to all aspects of life, therefore, efficient study involves reading ahead of the lecturer and ensuring that all other demands are duly met in order that they may not become distractions.
EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
The whole concept of study in learning institutions suggests that at some point the student will face an exam.
It is important to calculate how much time one requires for the task of studying. Failure to do this means that one will unnecessarily have to forgo certain leisure activities or use up sleeping hours — usually to the detriment of health and happiness.
Example: preparation for a discussion given one week earlier.
Total time = 7 days 7 x 24 = 168 hours
Meals = 7 x 3 = 21 hours
Travel = 5 x 2 = 10 hours
Other studies = 39 hours
Leisure = 20 hours
Misc. = 15 hours
Sleep = 7x8 = 56 hours
Total = 161 hours
168-162 = 9 hours free to organize for the discussion.
One way of planning for these hours could be:
Search for information = 1½ hours
Reading information/selecting = 2 hours
Discussion/making notes for personal reference = 2½ hours
For each section of the plan, a sub-plan that is more detailed in nature can be made.
Note:
A study plan is a method of making more efficient use of time and effort. Because it is a PLAN, it is not something that must be stuck to rigidly regardless of other considerations. Changes may be necessary now and then. Usually, students find that time allocated to the particular sections of a study plan is insufficient. This often leads to replanning of leisure and other activities.
Systematic Study
A systematic approach to study demands that we:
(i) Define objectives
(ii) Prepare study plan
Having done this, it is important to devise a study method i.e. how to go about the actual activity.
Example: PINCER method.
(a) Prepare - tap into prior knowledge and survey the information and material available.
(b) Inspect - Establish the general outline of the points to be covered and identify those parts which may be difficult.
(c) Note - make own summaries, highlight important points.
(d) Consider and evaluate - assess the value of what you have learnt. Make sure you understand each stage. Seek advice where necessary.
(e) Revise - constantly and progressively. Be the master of your work.
Reading for study purposes has the following characteristics:
I. It is slow and methodical.
2. Requires high concentration.
3. Requires non-distractive environment.
4. Requires time for reflection.
5. Requires discussion as a way of testing comprehension.
ATTRIBUTES OF A GOOD STUDENT
(i) Is purposeful i.e. has clearly defined objectives.
(ii) Uses time efficiently.
(iii) Plans his/her work.
(iv) Is methodical — follows a systematic study method.
(v) Is an efficient reader.
(vi) Is a good notemaker.
(vii) Prepares for exams in good time.
(viii) Revises progressively.
(ix) Is active in discussions.
(x) Safeguards physical and mental health.
(xi) Has good concentration.
(xii) Chooses best environment for studying.
(xiii) Is highly motivated.
(xiv) Has developed exam technique.
(xv) Has legible handwriting.
(xvi) Learns from failure.
Library Research
Many people construe studying to mean reading or preparing for exams. It is, however, broader than that for it is a skill that provides techniques for understanding the contents of the disciplines for which students have enrolled. In other words, studying is the process we use to understand and recall information. Clearly, this process requires mental effort to meet this object.
1. Library skills
In a university, the library forms the lifehood of all academic pursuits. It functions as an information centre that facilitates access to and use of information of books, non- book materials and computerized databases. To achieve this overall aim, the library acquires information, systematically organizes it and disseminates it to users.
Collections in a library
A well-organized university library arranges its materials systematically to enable users to locate them without difficulties. As such, sections for various collections are established and their summaries outlined accordingly.
The main collections include:
(a) Reserve Section
This section contains the texts on high demand. Such texts are normally core in specific disciplines and by having them on reserve more students would have access to them.
(b) Open Shelves Books
These texts are arranged according to the Library of Congress classification system. Several sections are marked according to subject areas using letters of the alphabet. Such materials are available for borrowing.
(c) Reference Materials
These include dictionaries, encyclopaedias and thesauruses. They are general publications for guide reference in the library.
(d) Africana Collections
These collections consist of locally published materials. In this category, texts by Kenyans and authors from various parts of Africa including theses, dissertations and project reports may be found.
Classification of Library Materials
Classification brings together documents on the same discipline together in one class. This facilitates fast access to these materials by library users. Classification is accomplished by classification schemes such as the Library of Congress Classification (LCC) and the Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC). These schemes will be briefly considered.
(a) Library of Congress Classification Scheme
This scheme was originally devised to organize material in the Library of Congress in the U.S. It has since been adapted by many libraries in the world. According to this scheme, knowledge is classified into over 120 classes using letters of the alphabet as follows:
Library of Congress Main Classes
A. General work
B. Philosophy
C. History. Auxiliary sciences
D. History. (Except America)
E-F. History of the Americans
G. Geography — Anthropology
H. Social sciences
J. Political sciences
K. Law
L. Education
M. Music
N. Fine Arts
P. Language and Literature
Q. Science
R. Medicine
S. Agriculture
T. Technology
U. Military science
V. Naval science
Z. Bibliography and library science source: AMREF (1994:43 8)
The main classes are further sub-divided into sub-classes that represent the major branches of the disciplines. Accordingly, an additional letter is added to the main one e.g.
Q. Science
QA Math
QC Physics
QD Chemistry
Each subclass is further sub-divided into divisions that could represent the topical areas of a sub-class. This is done by introducing an Arabic number to the subclass e.g.
PE, 1128 - Academic writing.
This classification scheme is widely used in university libraries including the Catholic University library.
(b) The Dewey Classification Scheme (DDC)
This scheme traces its origin to 1876 when it was published by Melvil Dewey, (after whom it was named). According to the scheme, knowledge can be classified into ten general classes using Arabic numerals ranging from 000 — 900. The classes are summarized as follows:
Dewey Decimal Classification Main Classes
000 General works
100 Philosophy and allied disciplines
200 Religion
300 Social sciences
400 Language
500 Pure sciences
600 Technology (Applied Sciences)
700 The arts
800 Literature
900 Geography, History and their auxiliaries.
Source: Comarom: J. P. (1991)
The general classes are made more specific by dividing each of them in subclasses. The subclasses are distinguished by intervals of 10 between one main class and another. e.g.
500 Pure sciences
510 Math
520 Astronomy
530 Physics
590 Zoological science
The subclasses are subjected to further sub-division to facilitate access. This level introduces decimal points to distinguish topics and sub-topics within a sub-class.
539. Modem Physics
539.7 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
539.72 Particle Physics
539.722 Ionizing Radiations
Knowledge of various classification schemes is useful as students may encounter libraries using different schemes. In such instances, accessing materials would not be problematic.
Catalogues
A catalogue is a list of available materials in a library arranged in some systematic order. The arrangement enhances the use of the collections as it acts as a guide to materials in the library.
Forms of Catalogues
(a) Computerized catalogue
Bibliographic information such as the name of the author, title of a text, place of publication and publisher may be shared in computers. Such information can be accessed through computer terminals by simply keying in another’s name, title of text or simply the subject to which the text belongs. A library user then uses this information to create a text on the schemes.
(b) Card catalogue
Unlike a computerized catalogue, a card catalogue records bibliographic details of a text on a card measuring 5x3 inches. The cards are arranged alphabetically in trays that are housed in catalogue cabinets.
Types of catalogues
Catalogues are classified by what information appears as the heading. i.e. on the top of the catalogue, the main topics are:
(a) Subject Catalogue
In this catalogue, entries are arranged following the alphabetical convention according to subject headings. Accordingly, a subject heading is a word or group of words under which similar library materials are entered on the subjects catalogue. This subject appears as the heading on the catalogue. e.g.
b) Author catalogue
In this catalogue, text with authors’ names as heading are arranged alphabetically. e.g.
(c) Title Catalogue
This type of a catalogue contains materials with titles as heading. The titles are arranged alphabetically. The articles “The” or An/A are not considered when alphabetizing the titles.
An example of a Title catalogue:
The Parts of a Catalogue
A catalogue comprises various reference information. The name of the author, title of text, place of publication, publisher, date of publication, number of pages, the subject the text belongs etc. A card looks as follows:
2. Tutorials
At university, the term tutorial refers to a normal group discussion. Normally, a student is asked to lead the discussion. Other students are required to listen and make contributions such as asking questions, giving comments and raising more issues for discussion.
Functions of Tutorials
Tutorials serve the following functions:
1. They provide a forum for students to evaluate a lecture.
2. They provide an opportunity to tackle unresolved questions
3. Students are able to learn how to develop and present arguments.
4. Learning is made more student-centred as opposed to teacher-centred.
Tack1ing the Tutorial Topic
Students are encouraged to consider the following when preparing for tutorials.
1. Understand the topic for discussion. Any misreading of the topic may cause
confusion and misdirection during the actual discussion.
2. Collect relevant information. Students are encouraged to consult various
sources of information in the library and make notes based on the topic.
3. Develop a plan. A plan outlines the structure of the paper to be discussed
during the tutorial. During planning, decide which information should go to the introduction, the development and the conclusion.
4. Using the plan, prepare the tutorial paper.
The Tutorial Session
The leader of the discussion should present the tutorial paper within the stipulated time and allow enough time for reactions from the listeners, including the lecturer. During presentation, one must guard against anxiety about giving a formal talk in public. Anxiety is normally caused by unfamiliar situations, lack of confidence, sense of isolation and self-consciousness.
Anxiety in speaking during tutorial can be enhanced through:
- relaxing your body.
- relaxing your voice.
- practice.
- knowing your audience.
Those not presenting should be prepared by:
- Reading a prior on the topic and listing key issues.
- Listening attentively while writing notes during the actual tutorial session.
- Noting down any unclear issues during the presentation.
After the presentation, the leader should allow the listeners time to raise issues for discussion. The presenter should be ready to respond to questions. When responding to questions, the presenter should give opinions politely by selecting words carefully. On the other hand, the listeners should air their concerns with humility but should not attack the presenter.
3. Lectures
A lecture is a talk giving information about a subject to an audience/class as part of a teaching programme.
A lecture normally outlines what is important on a subject and/or topic and guides students in further study. It also gives face to face/human interaction.
Before the lecture, the student should:
a) Check the course of outline to identify the topic to be covered.
b) Formulate questions based on the topic in (a).
c) Use this question as the purpose for pre-reading in the library. Pre-reading provides the student background information necessary to understand the lecture.
During the lecture, the student is expected to:
a) Arrive on time. As the lecture begins, the student needs to be in class to listen to any opening remarks and announcements concerning the subject or the topic of the day. Punctuality is also important for the student’s psychological orientation.
b) Listen critically. As the student listens, it is necessary to reflect on the lecture vis à-vis one’s knowledge and experience.
c) Be attentive. Listen actively; focus the mind to the lecture and guard against any instances of inattention.
d) Jot down important points as the lecture progresses. A student should be able to listen and take notes concurrently.
After the lecture, the student is expected to:
a) Integrate lecture notes with own pre-lecture notes in a logical manner.
b) Reflect on the integrated notes and raise concerns, which will require further attention/investigation.
c) Review and expand lecture notes regularly. The human mind encounters new information everyday and therefore is likely to forget old information. We need to jog the memory of our minds by raising our own notes consistently. Highlight important points during review. Expansion of notes has the following advantages: clarity of language, logical flow, familiarity and revelation of gaps in knowledge.
e) Note references in case you have to trace them again.
e) Create revision notes/summaries.
4. Note Making
Note making and taking is important for study purposes. It is argued that we can lose up to 80% of the consent within the week if no effort is made to record or remember the material.
Note making happens when using notes from a written source e.g. a textbook or journal article while taking notes happens when writing notes from a spoken source.
When taking or making notes, it is not possible to write every word uttered or written. In case of note taking, the writer can’t match the speaking speed of the lecturer. Speaking is normally faster than writing. Similarly, writing every word from a text when making notes will be too time consuming and tantamount to a reproduction of the text. This calls for more economical ways of writing notes.
The following guidelines are invaluable:
a) Write the dates of the notes.
b) The speaker’s name, title of lecture, venue and time, in case of note taking.
c) The bibliographic details of the text (e.g. author, title, place of publication, publisher, page number etc) in case of note making.
d) Use symbols i.e. marks that represent a meaning e.g. a slash (I) to stand for an alternative, underline to emphasize, etc.
e) Use abbreviations i.e. short forms of words, e.g.
Inf - information
PP.- pages
Cf. - compare
E.g. - for example
Dept. - department
f) Use acronyms (i.e. names formed from the initial letters of outer words) e.g.
AGOA - African Growth and Opportunities Act.
rader - radio detecting and ranging.
EMU - Efficiency Monitoring Unit.
MOU - Memorandum Of Understanding.
g) Use numbers and letters to indicate the points. The general format of the notes should be:
Date …………………… Source of notes ………………………..
Title ……………………
I. Main idea
A. Subordinate idea
1. Elaboration for A
2. Elaboration for A
3. Elaboration for A
B. Subordinate idea
1. Elaboration for B
2. Elaboration for B
II. Main idea
A. Subordinate idea etc
REFERENCES
Comaromi, J. P. (1991), Dewey Decimal Classification ( Ed.), Englewood: Libraries Unlimited.
Donders, J. C. (1984), How to Study. Nairobi: Uzima Press.
Ferrer-Harreddy, J. & Whalley, E. (1996), A Listening/Speaking Skills Book. New York: McGraw Hill.
Gates, J. K. (1994) Guide to the Use of Library and Information Sources ( Ed.), New York McGraw Hill.
Harrison, C. T. (1990), The Basics of Librarianship (Ed.) London:
Library Association.
Jay, Antony and Ros. J. (1996), Effective Presentation: How to be a top class presenter. London: Pitman.
Montegomeny, M. (1982), Study Skills for Colleges and Universities in Africa, Longman.
III. TYPES OF WRITING
1.1. Introduction
Writing is a process of communication between a writer and reader or readers. Like a radio or television presenter, a writer has the potential of reaching a very wide audience and can communicate to millions of people through writing.
1.2. Types of Writing
There are four main conventional types of writing, with each governing different writing circumstances. These types of writing are:
• Argumentative Writing
• Descriptive Writing
• Expository Writing
• Narrative Writing
1.2.1. Argumentative Writing
This is the type of writing that is done argumentatively. The writer collects all his/her points and presents them logically and constructively. In this way, the writer persuades and convinces his or her audience to accept his or her point of view.
Whether you choose to argue for or against a particular line of thinking, you must be clear about your argument. Your writing strategy should reflect both your purpose of the argument and the expectations of your audience.
With supportive data and other substantial evidence, based on your experience and judgment. you should be able to fairly and impartially draw your conclusions from the argument to convince your audience accordingly.
A legislator sponsoring a bill in parliament uses argumentative writing to persuade and convince fellow legislators to support his / her submission to the bench for consideration.
Sometimes you may appear with a point of view. In your argument, this should be done objectively through polite and scholarly language.
Properties of a good argument.
• Reasonableness
• Logic
• Differentiation between verifiable facts and subjective convictions
• Avoidance of fallacies i.e. unqualified generalizations.
1.2.2. Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing is used in the description of a person, place, event or anything national or artificial. There are difference types of descriptive writing:
• Static description — describes something that is still
• Cause and effect — describes how one thing causes and affects another
Descriptive writing is either objective or suggestive in content. A description of something contains full factual and quantifiable information about it. Such information can also be personal, touching on sensory impressions and feelings.
With the exception of scientific and technical writers who often describe things as objective and impersonally as possible, writers generally want their descriptions to truly reflect their observations. At the same time they want their descriptions to be suggestive.
Therefore, description writing applies more in artistic writing and historical surveys than in academic writing.
1.2.3. Expository Writing
Expository writing may be best described as advanced description in as much as it delves deeper beneath mere description. Essentially, it involves defining, explaining and expounding an idea or subject.
Using various techniques like definition, analysis, process and comparison and contrast. Expository writing sets out to make the reader really understand something. This is the reason why most studies in humanities lead to this type of writing.
When as a writer you choose to discuss a concept such as democracy or good governance, you will first make a comprehensive definition of it. Your analysis will involve breaking the subject under discussion into logical parts for further discussion.
Process shows the progress of the subject of study, from the beginning to end. Comparison entails brining out similarities between the subject and those that are familiar to the reader. Contrast is used to bring out the difference.
Your exposition will be clearer through the use of examples and illustrations which will also lead the reader from the known to the unknown.
1.2.4. Narrative Writing
Narrative writing involves recounting events and it is mainly used in fiction, creative writing, history and literature reviews. Therefore, narrative writing may be imaginative and subjective or factual and objective. It is characterized by giving an orderly account of an event, whether real or imagined.
Every narrative writing has a main event which is conspicuously highlighted and made to stand out. Usually, events follow in a chronological and sequential manner and vocabulary used is usually time-based, e.g. Next, Finally, Prior to that, as a result, etc.
Writing is a process that involves several steps
o Planning
Writing begins with thinking. The writer should ask questions such as:
(i) What is the purpose of my writing? Many assignments should do not stipulate the writing purpose, but most college level writing is geared towards informing and persuading. Once a student knows the purpose of writing, they are able to decide what to write and how to present the material.
(ii) Who is my audience? For a college student, this is usually the instructor and/or audience. The writer should target his/her writing to the audience level.
(iii) What are the special requirements of my writing task? These include aspects such as length of the assignment and time given, which the student should adhere to.
NOTE
(i) Topic Selection
Once in a while, student may be expected to formulate their own topics for writing. The main task is to narrow the subject. The writer has to think of different subdivisions within the subject that he/she can write on. The student should select an aspect that he/she finds interesting, taking into account the special requirements of the writing task.
(ii) Gathering ideas
Planning also involves gathering ideas for writing. One could do this by preparing questions that will help tackle the writing task. These are usually who? What? Where? When? How? Questions.
Assignments also require that the student engage in reading and brainstorming – for example, one may try to reflect and writer all ideas that come to mind concerning the topic.
(iii) Extensive Reading and Interpretation
When reading, there is always a great temptation to read and reproduce what the books say. In reality, reading ought to be an attempt to interpret what the book says from one’s own standpoint in relation to the question given or selected. This is why preliminary thinking is really important. It prevents essays from appearing to be a mere mix of other people’s work (when a writer fails to acknowledge sources of information, it is called plagiarism). The ability to achieve individuality when engaging in a writing task begins right from the planning stage. The student should constantly interpret he relevance of the information in terms of what is required in the essay. This prevents irrelevance and incoherence from eventually seeping into the work. In addition, the student should engage in extensive background reading that is relevant to the course. Such reading is characterized by speed, superficiality and enjoyment; it enables the reader to put randomly absorbed knowledge to good use when faced with academic writing.
o Shaping
This is an important step to take in the writing process. It makes the transition form gathering ideas to writing a draft. It involves the following components:
♣ Determining tone
♣ Drafting a thesis statement (ref. handout on Effective Paragraphs)
♣ Outlining ideas. An outline is a working plan/layout of the major parts intended for and essay (ref. OWL handout showing a sample outline)
o Drafting
Drafting means getting ides on paper in sentences and paragraphs. This should not pose a problem to a student who has developed a good outline.
o Revising
Revising means evaluating the draft and making improvements by cutting out unnecessary material moving adding and replacing materials to achieve logical and coherent flow of ideas.
o Editing
Editing focuses on surface features such as correct grammar, spelling, punctuation, capitalization and so on. Editing focuses on presentation rather than meaning. Editing does not involve writing another draft. It involves polishing what one already has.
o Proofreading
This involves checking the final version carefully before handing it in. one should check the work line by line and ensure that the handwriting is legible. If typed, one should check for typing errors – this is the responsibility of the writer
IV. REPORT WRITING
A report is a business document written on a specified topic for a given audience.
- A business report is an orderly presentation of facts about specific business activity or programme.
- It is a document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting forward ideas or sometimes making recommendations.
- Therefore, most report when purposefully written, provide the basis for decision and action.
- A report may either be oral or written.
- An oral report is simple and easy to present.
- Most of the time it is an impression or an observation.
- But a written report is always preferred:
Advantages
I) Oral can be denied anytime. But a written report is apermanent record.
2) Oral tends to be vague. It may contain irrelevant facts and omit significant ones. In a written report, the writer tries to be accurate and precise.
3) A written report can change hands without any danger or distortion during transmission.
4) A written report can be referred to again and again.
Informative Vs. Interpretive Reports
- If a report merely presents facts pertinent to an issue or a situation it is informative.
- If it analyses the facts, draws conclusions and makes recommendations, it may be described as Analytical or interpretive. E.g. An informative report — the number of secondary schools which do well in K.C.S.E in Nyanza.
An interpretive report — analyze why and to what extent they do/do not do well.
Importance of Reports
- Is a basic management tool used in decision making.
- Is a document written to inform and advise the reader.
Characteristics of a Good Report
1. Precision
- In a good report, the writer is very clear about the exact purpose.
- The investigation, analysis, recommendation is directed by this central purpose.
- Precision gives unity and coherence to the report and makes it a valuable document.
2. Accuracy of Facts
- The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report.
- The tone is even and factual. It communicates in a clear and unemotional manner, i.e. it does not waste words or allow feelings to cloud the issues.
- Since reports lead to decision making, inappropriate data may lead to disastrous decision.
3. Relevance
- The facts presented in a report should not only be accurate but also relevant.
- Irrelevant facts make a report confusing, exclusion of relevant facts render it incomplete and likely to mislead.
4. Clarity
A good report is absolutely clear.
- Clarity depends on proper arrangement of facts i.e. Report writer must proceed systematically.
- He should make his purpose clear, define his sources, state his findings, and finally make necessary recommendations.
NB Reports are organized in separate sections and frequently are introduced by section headings and numbered points or paragraphs.
5. Brevity
A report should be brief (difficult to define).
- A good report should be as brief as possible (but not achieved at the cost of clarity or completeness) i.e. sometimes the problem being investigated is of such importance that it calls for a detailed discussion of facts.
- Therefore, include everything significant and yet be as brief as possible.
6. Objectivity of Recommendations
- If recommendations are made at the end of a report, they must be impartial and objective.
- i.e. they should come as logical conclusions to investigation and analysis.
- i.e. they must not reveal any self-interest on the part of the writer.
7. Simple and Unambiguous Language
- A good report is in simple and unambiguous language.
- The language is usually generally formal and official without the variation in tone that is sometimes found within letters.
- It is a kind of scientific document of practical utility, hence it should be free from various forms of poetic elements like figures of speech.
8. Reader - Orientation
A good report is reader-oriented.
- While drafting a report, it is necessary to keep in mind the person (audience) to read it.
e.g. Report for layman versus report for technical experts.
9. Grammatical Accuracy
- Is of fundamental importance.
- No faulty language like other essays.
- Faulty sentences make the meaning obscure and ambiguous.
TYPES OF BUSINESS REPORTS
(1) On the basis of legal formalities to be complied with, we have two types of reports.
(a) Formal reports
(b) Informal reports
(2) On the basis of the number of persons entrusted with the drafting of a report, there are two types:
(a) Reports by individuals
(b) Reports by committees and sub-committees
(3) On the basis of the nature of a report, we have:
(a) Periodic or routine reports
(b) Progress reports and completion reports (work reports)
(c) Examination reports
(d) Recommendation and information reports (investigation reports)
(e) Statistical reports
(1) Eye witness reports
(g) Lab reports (refer to photocopy for details)
ORGANISATION OF A REPORT
There are three ways in which a report can be organized:
1) Letter form
2) Memorandum form
3) Letter text combination form
LETTER FORM
- This is usually done with informal reports.
- It is the arrangement followed in business letters
Its main parts are:
The heading or the title
- date
- address
- salutation
- the body
- complimentary close and
- signature
- it is usually written in the first person ‘I’ or ‘we’.
The Body
The body of the report can be further divided into the following parts:
(a) Introduction
The introductory paragraphs present, the terms of reference and the subject to study. Here the writer states the problem confronting him in the light of the terms of reference and the relevant circumstances.
e.g. In accordance to your letter dated 24 February 1999 assigning me the task of finding out why the performance of students in Nyanza has gone down during I wish to report as wider.
(b) Findings
The next few paragraphs present the findings of the investigation.
(c) Recommendations
Recommendations that logically follow the findings are given in the last paragraph of the body.
Yours faithfully,
S.M Peter
Director of Education
2. MEMORANDUM FORM
- Adopting memo form is a simpler way of presenting the reports, since here the formalities of the letter form are done away with.
(a) The title of the subjects is stated after.
(b) The name of the writer of the report, the receiver, the date, the actual text and the conclusion.
NB: As in the letter form, the text of the report is divided into paragraphs with headings and sub-headings.
- Quote paper
- Brighton Amuni (Author), 2019, Communication Skills, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.hausarbeiten.de/document/1613018
