Prior research have shown Contemporary manifestations of colonialism are increasingly apparent, surpassing its historical visibility in numerous dimensions. It has been seen in recent years, a significant number of cultural institutions, archives, and museums across Europe, North America, and Australia actively confronting the imperative of transforming their practices to promote decolonization.
This review brings together perspectives from a range of reports on the topic of decolonisation within historical archaeology. It delves into the methodologies employed, and the obstacles encountered, and gives suggestions for furthering the decolonisation process in light of the report’s insights.
This work seeks to champion the integration of indigenous knowledge systems into our educational frameworks, while also promoting the necessity for increased archaeological exploration along the African coastline.
Author: Christina Upendo Feza
Essay posted: 15, December, 2024
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
EXPLORING DECOLONIZATION IN HISTORICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY: A TECHNICAL REVIEW
What are the current challenges?
Abstract
Prior research have shown Contemporary manifestations of colonialism are increasingly apparent, surpassing its historical visibility in numerous dimensions (Filho, 2024:67). It has been seen in recent years, a significant number of cultural institutions, archives, and museums across Europe, North America, and Australia actively confronting the imperative of transforming their practices to promote decolonization. This review brings together perspectives from a range of reports on the topic of decolonisation within historical archaeology. It delves into the methodologies s employed, and the obstacles encountered and gives suggestions for furthering the decolonisation process in light of the report’s insights. This work seeks to champion the integration of indigenous knowledge systems into our educational frameworks while also promoting the necessity for increased archaeological exploration along the African coastline.
Keywords: Decolonization, Historical archaeology, Indigenous archaeology, Indigenous Knowledge Systems, Western Knowledge Systems, African Marine Archaeology, Aboriginal
INTRODUCTION
1. Decolonization Process in Historical Archaeology
Studies have shown that decolonising techniques in archaeology have developed as a response to colonial perspectives, aiming to enhance the accuracy of Indigenous representations and thereby indicating the primary goal of these approaches is to enrich the authenticity of Indigenous cultural portrayals through reflection, recollection, education, knowledge acquisition, and the preservation of heritage (see Bruchac, 2014). Nevertheless, scholars, including Sonya Atalay (2006), assert that the methodologies employed in historical archaeology aimed at decolonisation remain profoundly influenced by colonial legacies, which can be observed in both practice and interpretation. Sonya further asserted that Western Knowledge Systems (WKS) primarily shape historical narratives. Despite that claim, scholars have acknowledged that Indigenous studies have cultural enquiries that hold solutions to societal issues, thereby marking a permanent turn in the historical archaeology discipline, said Wheeler & Bernstein (2020), by giving exposure to diverse systems of knowledge beyond the conventional Western paradigms (also see Kenedy, 2010). The subsequent paragraphs will only feature a brief introduction of indigenous archaeology and define the common approach and its challenges.
WKS stands for "Western "Knowledge systems. “Western" refers to the culture of classical antiquity that began in Greece and Rome, lived through the fall of the Roman Empire, and spread to western and northern Europe. During the great exploration and colonization periods of the 15th century to the 19th century, it spread to the Americas, Australia, and parts of Asia and Africa (Hanson, 2007)
2. The Theory
The Oxford University Press dictionary defines the term "Indigenous" as referring to the original inhabitants of a territory before the arrival of colonial powers (Oxford University Press, 2023). Contrary to the Oxford dictionary definition of indigenous, scholars such as Smith have characterised indigenous as a term that connects us (humanity) to Mother Earth and to deeply significant spiritual relationships (Smith, L., 1999). Studies present a comprehensive definition of Indigenous asa body of knowledgetransmitted through generations (Kintigh et al., 2014; et al., 2014; Jessen et al., 2022). To define indigenous archaeology as a discipline, scholars such as Pearsall (2008) and Silliman (2015) have defined Indigenous archaeology as a discipline that challenges Western archaeology by empowering Indigenous communities to protect their heritage and address current inequality in various temporal and spatial contexts. Silliman, Johanson, Albrecht, and Drugge agree with academics who stress the importance of shared and multiethnic histories (Johanson, 2022; Albrecht, 2022; Silliman, 2015) and also say that lateral comparative studies of colonialism and longitudinal studies of Indigenous histories must come together crucially.
IKS stands for Indigenous Knowledge Systems, also known as Traditional Ecological Knowledge. This is a collection of beliefs, practices, innovations, and knowledge passed down through generations that encourages people to be good stewards of cultural and natural resources by fostering sustainable relationships between people and the landscapes in which they live, and the individuals inseparably linked to that information are an integral part of it (The White House, Dec. 2, 2022).
3. Methodology
A lot of research has shown that ethnography is a common way to look at Indigenous communities, characterized by long periods of observations which take various forms including interviews and it focuses on collecting qualitative data to understand social psychology and cultural dynamics (Gobo, 2011; Gobo, 2008; Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994; Smith, 1999; Adhikari, 2023; Smith et al., 2011; Peregrine, 2004). Studies show the approach facilitated the comparison of societal types of enquiries into the underlying causes of cultural variations, decline, preservation, and presentation globally, which was crucial for the Indigenous people's well-being (Durmush et al., 2024; Smith et al., 2011;Smith & Peregrine, 2012; Simonds & Christopher, 2013) and was enabled by the digitisation of extensive ethnodatasets (Akemu & Abdelnour, 2020; Popay et al., 2006). Scholars have also highlighted the power dynamic aspect of ethnographic research: the choice of topic primarily lies with the researcher (Drimmelen et al., 2023), and the participants as the community observed having its own power characteristics, for example, in gaining access to information such as interviews and so forth (Drimmelen et al., 2023; Vitalis, 2010).Scholars also note that mitigating research extraction is important to establish trust, obtain informed consent, and prioritise the well-being and autonomy of those involved in their studies, highlighting the importance of respecting the communities and individuals being studied (Kang & Hwang, 2023; Willow & Kelly, 2020). Various organisations, such as ICOM and the Museums Association, have suggested to institutions housing ethnological collections ought to ensure that the artefacts and information displayed are obtained and presented respectfully and ethically (museumsassociation.org; com.museum).
4. Challenges and Limitations
Literature reveals that there are significant challenges, particularly concerning sample size, selection, and contextualisation, partly because none of them is a simple construct (McNiven 2016; Smith & Peregrine, 2012). An ethnography research blog revealed that many ethnographies take less than a year, and it appears that an increasing number of ethnographies are being conducted within shorter time frames, especially as applied anthropology gains traction in both business and academic contexts where rapid results are essential (Ethnographic-research.com). Moreover, a deficiency exists in the number of archaeologists doing Indigenous studies, as highlighted by Smith & Peregrine (2012); however, there is no way of knowing if that is still the case currently, but it highlights the incapacity of conducting a thorough narrative synthesis. Also, research shows that Western views still exist in indigenous reports (Walter et al., 2021). Marek-Martinez (2021) highlights ethical concerns, contending that archaeological research often shapes nationalistic narratives that overlook Indigenous perspectives. Jones and Smith recently disclosed that there is increasing animosity and skepticism between scholars and Indigenous communities (Jones & Smith, 2017). The subsequent paragraphs will only feature three examples from Aboriginal studies to showcase the results of this methodology and reveal other challenges scholars face. Followed by African decolonisation efforts coupled with examples and challenges.
ONGOING ENGANGEMENT ON ABORIGINAL STUDIES
5. Aboriginal Marine Technology
Studies show that Aboriginal marine technology is 13,000 years old, as Rebekah Bradshaw reported on the schmidtocean.org blog. The article disclosed that First Australians were sailors, voyaging over expanses of open water to what would eventually become their home (schmidtocean.org, 2021). Recent research shows that studies on Aboriginal marine technology have been limited, with a focus on the interior rather than coastal areas where the majority of Aboriginal people live (Ban & Alejandro, 2018). Legislation around Aboriginal sea space has generated public discourse; however, weak rights and limited claims have been pursued (Barber, 2005). The Schmidtocean blog highlighted the 2001 Croker Island Case—Commonwealth versus Yarmirr—which tried to define the scope of Native Title at sea. It was discovered that the Croker Island populations not only named physical structures like reefs, boulders, and sand bars but also named distinct zones of the water depending on their depth.Scholars have continued to show that Aboriginal marine studies are important for the future as they bridge Indigenous and science-based knowledge in managing and monitoring coastal environments (Alexander et al., 2019). Scholars highlight that Indigenous and science-based knowledge combination also helps in marine research because it provides key insights to inform and improve future research by utilising a variety of methodologies and methods to combine different ways of knowing (Alexander et al., 2019; Kingsley, 2020; Bird. et al., 2019).
"The history of oceanography is still a fairly" colonial "Westernised story, and we need to" decolonise "the field and learning about how indigenous cultures relate to marine and coastal landscapes”Rebekah Bradshaw. February 3, 2021, schmidtocean.org
6. Aboriginal Languages
Whitley (2014) and Usborne et al. (2011) explored the intricate tapestry of human experience, delving into the profound connections between languages and the myriad forms of cultural expression among Aboriginal communities. Usborne et al. (2011) and Mooney et al. (2003) suggested that incorporating Indigenous languages in the classroom enhances native students' proficiency in both their ancestral language and the dominant language. Scholars emphasise that the loss of indigenous languages will result in the irreversible loss of irreplaceable cultural knowledge (social.desa.un.org/sites, Feb 2023). Whitely, Usborne, Mooney and colleagues, highlighted the necessity for strategic partnerships that foster culture-driven outcomes.
7. Social Complexity
Recent studies of Victorian Aboriginal land management (Kingsley et al. 2009) and the exploration of the social capital of Indigenous Australians (Brough et al. 2007) show how important it is for the community to provide more Aboriginal participation opportunities in political, social, and economic decisions such as better respect, training, resources, and jobs. Studies of such, funded or promoted by numerous organisations for example, the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and the Australian Bureau of Statistics, underscore that socio-economic factors like income and education affect an individual's capacity to engage with and influence society. As Indigenous Australians recognised for having the lowest economic status among all Australians. Wade and Sarah Rose's research on the factors that affect the economic and social well-being of Aboriginal people in the US and Canada showed the need for a theoretical model that would help researchers better understand the implicit and explicit parts of social issues, looking at it from both the governments' and the Aboriginal peoples' points of view.
8. Challenges
Scholars encounter numerous challenges, particularly when institutions frequently show hesitance to adopt the concepts generated from research findings (Craven, 2011; Steele et al., 2023). Academics often find that First Nations viewpoints on Australia's basic history are frequently disregarded or dismissed. Mariko Smith, in her reports on the Indigenx blog, highlighted the historical pattern of museums taking the Eurocentric perspective. In her reflective article, Miss Smith highlighted that, in 2018, during the 250th anniversary of Lieutenant James Cook's East Coast journey, the Australian Museum expressed interest in organising their cook-related display, downplaying the impact of cook-related relics on Aboriginal people. Australian native Kimberly Moutlon recently expressed that the labelling of Aboriginal artefacts often lacks information about the civilisations they originate from and that more information might exist regarding the collector compared to the artefacts themselves (2013—britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine).
“"A search of the databases generated 5,290 citations. An additional 15 citations were found using Google Scholar and manual reference searches throughout the full-text screening procedure. A total of 2,100 duplicates were eliminated, yielding
3,275. Citations for the abstract and title screens were omitted, totaling 3,195. The dominance of Western ideas resulted in the marginalization of Indigenous perspectives, probably owing to publication bias. - Walker et al, 2021.
AFRICA'S ROLE DECOLONIZATION PROCESS
Literature reviews revealed two key elements of the decolonisation process in Africa: the reconstruction of African history from ancient times and Indigenous archaeology, both of which aim to highlight cultural identity and cultural contacts (Nordholt, 2021, Robertshaw, 2012). Studies in the genetics of indigenous people in Africa have revealed cultural links worldwide (Fan et al., 2019) and archaeological research has revealed global trade links dating back to the Middle Stone Age (Garba, 1999; McIntosh, 2022; Chami, 199). The subsequent paragraphs will only feature four examples from an African perspective and showcase results of these efforts.
9. Languages and Genetics
A study that sequenced the genomes of 92 people from 44 Indigenous African populations had researchers uncovering a lot of genetic variation among Africans of different racial and cultural backgrounds, attested by geographic and linguistic factors revealing their socio-economic activities (Fan et al. 2019). Researchers also revealed that Africa is home to over 2000 ethnolinguistic groups, representing approximately one-third of the world's languages (Fan, et al. 2019). Researchers highlighted that nearly all African languages fall into four primary categories: Afroasiatic, Nilo-Saharan, Niger- Congo, and Khoesan (Fan, et al. 2019). Researchers found that populations engaged in agro-pastoralism and agriculture in northern and eastern Africa primarily use Afroasiatic languages (Fan, et al. 2019).
10. The Igbo studies
Scholars between 1950 and 1970 discovered that the presence of exotic materials like glass beads and imported ceramics at the site suggests that the people of Igbo-Ukwu were engaged in trade and had connections with other cultures and civilisations, both within and outside of Africa (Sutton, 2001; McIntosh, 2022; Nyang & Oplupona, 1995).
Scholars have noted that Igbo-Ukwu boasts one of the oldest glass productions in West Africa (Sutton, 2001; McIntosh, 2022; Nyang & Oplupona, 1995). Scholars uncovered more than 600 prestige objects, featuring detailed cast copper-alloy sculptures and upwards of 165,000 glass and carnelian beads. The predominant type of glass identified in the 138 analytical results for Igbo-Ukwu beads is soda-lime glass made from plant ash (Sutton, 2001; McIntosh, 2022; Nyang & Oplupona, 1995). Scholars indicate that the intricate and finely crafted artefacts found at Igbo-Ukwu suggest the existence of a sophisticated and socially complex society (Sutton, 2001; Nyang & Oplupona, 1995). Numerous museums, including the Nigerian National Museum in Lagos, display the findings.
11. African Maritime Archaeology
Research efforts explore the field of maritime archaeology by identifying and interpreting the physical remnants left by those who navigate the seas and oceans. For example, research on Middle Stone Age sites in South Africa, such as Klasies River Mouth and Pinnacle Point, showcases the earliest evidence of human exploitation of marine resources, including birds, marine mammals, and shellfish (Volman, 1983). Scholars indicate that Africa possesses a rich history in maritime affairs dating back to the Middle Stone Age, with communities leveraging coastal marine resources, extending to the renowned Pharos lighthouse of Alexandria and the Indian Ocean trade along the Swahili coast, ultimately leading to the Atlantic triangular slave trade (Beaujard, 2015).
Discoveries in the Dafuna and Mafira Archipelago have put Africa at the forefront of global maritime trade networks (Garba, 1996; Chami, 1999).
12. Canoes in Dufuna, Nigeria
Studies revealed the lineage of sea-going vessels, as evidenced by the unearthing of dugout canoes at Dufuna in northern Nigeria (Graba, 1996; Pollard, 2021). A 1996 report by Garba revealed that the construction of these boats was similar to that of earlier papyrus rafts, asserting that discoveries provide insights into the fishing techniques employed by local populations, such as baskets and sewn-hull boats, 8000 years ago, and also indicate that Nigerian society was on par, if not ahead, of that of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoa, and Phoenicia (Garba, 1996). A recent study done in 2021 by an American archaeology team showed the earliest plank-built boats, like the Old Kingdom Royal Ship of Cheops of Khufu that was found at the Giza pyramids. Scholars revealed that traders, as referred to in individual accounts from Periplus Maris Erythraei and Ptolemy's Geographia, traded commodities like ivory and rhinoceros horn between Arabia and India with eastern Africa (Pollard, 2021).
13. Rhapta at the Swahili Coast, East Africa
Scholars have identified Rhapta Emporium, as a significant cultural and commercial center along the East African coast during the 1st centuryCE (Chami & Mapunda, 1998). Bita and his colleagues disclosed that Roman artefacts have been found in some places, such as the Rufiji River, which is just south of Dar es Salaam, and Chole and Mwamba Ukuta in the Mafia archipelago (Bita et al., 2022; Chami & Mapunda, 1998). Studies show that Rhapta was crucial in linking traders who used the monsoon winds to travel from the Mediterranean to what is now Indonesia (Bita et al., 2022; Chami & Mapunda, 1998; Gupta, 2016). Researchers revealed that the discoveries included beads, sigillata sherds, and a port built in the Roman style. Historical accounts of Rhapta, includes Graeco-Roman documents like Pliny the Elder, Ptolemaeus, and the Periplus of the Erythraean, trace Rhapta (Bita et al., 2022; Chami & Mapunda, 1998).
14. Challenges and Limitations
Kaya and Seleti disclosed that a lack of strong cultural focus on indigenous studies hinders the integration of African indigenous knowledge systems into the higher educational system (Kaya & Seleti, 2013). Cruz (2023) underscores that African and foreign archaeologists are being shut up by representatives of authoritarian states and institutional doorkeepers because they challenge dominant narratives, support alternative stories and subaltern communities, or fight against systems of corruption and favoritism. In addressing inequality in Africa and African Studies, scholars highlight that racialised hierarchies can emerge despite aspirations for creating a radically egalitarian ‘post-racial enclave’ (Kessi, Marks & Ramugondo, 2020). Shose Kessi, Zoe Marks, and Elelwani Ramugondo (2020) say that colonialism and its effects are still felt in national and international relationships regarding working together and building capacity.
"Many of us have had or know of encounters with authoritarian state representatives and institutional gatekeepers because we challenged established paradigms, supported alternative narratives and subaltern communities, or opposed patronage and corruption systems. One potential outcome is silence, which may take the form of explicit harassment, rejection of research permissions and financing, and impediment to professional development. The case in Eritrea is just one of many examples of postcolonial power dynamics that directly affect researchers, preventing ethical, socially responsible archaeology while also jeopardizing work, publication, and livelihoods (Cruz, 2023:7).
DISCUSSION
I focused on the dynamics of decolonisation efforts and conducted an investigation into the current state of Aboriginal studies and the ongoing efforts in Africa. IKS has gained valuable insights from Aboriginal studies. Scholars have underscored the importance of IKS in promoting a harmonious relationship with the natural world. Academicians who have previously discussed the issues and the most effective solutions have put forth numerous proposals. Nevertheless, I encountered a dearth of materials that advocate for indigenous knowledge systems while conducting a search for indigenous reports in Africa. Numerous articles and reports, including those published by Africanewa magazine, Amnesty International, and the United Nations, have documented the forced eviction of indigenous people from their land as a consequence of their governments' sanction of foreign investments. Recent reports about the Maasai people's imminent eviction from their land (www.amnesty.org) highlight their challenges. In my opinion, modern African communities require knowledge that is in harmony with nature from native tribes that kept their ways to increase socio-economic collaborations. Therefore, by conducting research on aspects such as Maasai’s Malaria cure, we can ensure the preservation of indigenous knowledge and promote respect and opportunities for native communities.
15. Implications
From the discussion we gained an insight that , there three key challenges in studying Indigenous communities extraction, integration and support which will help in learning more about IIKS, support local scholars, find better places to study, and make it easier for Western researchers to use a clear database and engage with. Such an approach that will foster respect for IKS and enhance our comprehension of past societies. Last but not least: helping to decolonise the archaeological record is making sure that the knowledge gathered is useful for all members of society. I have two as alternative solutions to the identified issues in this review. I trust that they will offer a more precise representation of history and facilitate a complete integration of IKS
(i). A first suggestion
Stakeholder funds>Native community > sample/site > study > informal report>local institutions
This approach involves ensuring that relevant institutions or organisations allocate research funding directly to native governments, allowing them to decide what they want to share for the sake of education. The strategy allows native governments to maintain complete autonomy over the selection of research topics, sample selection, methodologies, and overall study design. Thereafter, they would provide an informal report to the local institution. The local institutions can compile and utilise their data to facilitate comparative analyses of samples worldwide by establishing an accessible digital format database for scholarly research and reference purposes. This will facilitate extensive familiarisation with IKS and promote global academic engagement with these systems. The key importance of this approach is to emphasise cultural identity based on race and more on the basis of knowledge systems.
“Archaeologists, especially those from European backgrounds, do not have an obligation to adopt a more 'Native' approach, just as Indigenous individuals are not expected to embrace a more 'Western' or 'academic' perspective” (McNiven, 2016:36).
(ii). Second suggestion:
Local scholar > sample /site revisit > study > report
This approach aims to historical reconstruction archaeological research to allow marginalised or lesser-known civilisations to come to light. This way, it gives modern cultures connected to these civilisations a sense of recognition and their own identities. Scholars undertaking these studies need collaboration and support, which can take the form of funding or the use of advanced technological tools like underwater research instruments, among other things. This approach enables viewpoints and narratives for historically marginalised groups. Other forms of collaboration may include inviting scholars to present their discoveries as guest lectures in Western institutions— promoting respect and facilitating familiarisation with the untold stories and experiences of lesser-known civilisations. This approach is essential for actively advancing a more equitable representation of history.___________
“The solution may be that an action-driven, critical, and decolonizing archaeology does not need to be expressly confrontational and iconoclastic. It may be engaged at once with archaeological data and local perspectives to develop several sorts of knowledge about erased peoples from the past and promote counter-narratives defended by existing oppressed populations” (Cruz, 2023:10)
By undertaking these initiatives, museums and cultural institutions have the potential to decolonise their collections and provide a wider array of perspectives and narratives from diverse cultures and regions
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