The purpose of this study is to discuss the consequences of colonial control in Sri Lanka. Colonialism was a major event that had a wide-ranging impact on nations. This article examines the socioeconomic structure of Sri Lanka as well as its historical administrative system. In the early 15th century, three Western nations conquered Sri Lanka.
The following are the changes of importance under these three Western powers: The Portuguese were installed on the top layer of the administrative system, a royal council of ministers, and during the Dutch period, the island was subdivided into three large provinces centered on Jaffna, Colombo, and Galle. Their administration was far superior to the Portuguese, and they did not follow the Portuguese practice of assigning revenues from villages as payment for services.
During that time, the administrative structure was roughly divided into three groups, and the Ceylonese's well-organized judicial system was introduced. Furthermore, for the first time in Ceylon, the British government was separated into five provinces, then nine, and provinces were divided into districts. They reorganized the political and administrative systems with the adoption of constitutional reforms.
The Portuguese have created an export-based economy to Ceylon through their economic policies. The Dutch supported the growth of trade-value commodities; they introduced coffee into the country, and the British crown was sold cheaply to growers to stimulate plantation agriculture, which proved profitable. Religion, education, labor services, architecture, and language have all undergone socio-cultural transformations.
Content
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................. 1
2. Sri Lanka's social structure and nature prior to the colonial period................................ 2
3. Social Formation in the Ancient Period of Sri Lanka.................................................... 2
3.1. Administration Sector......................................................................................... 2
3.2 Society................................................................................................................ 3
4. Brief Introduction to Colonialism............................................................................... 4
5. Colonial Rules and Sri Lanka..................................................................................... 4
6. Political and Administrative impacts of Colonial rule................................................... 6
7. Economic Consequences of Colonial Rule.................................................................. 8
8. Socio-cultural impacts of Colonial Rule.................................................................... 10
8.1. Religion............................................................................................................ 10
Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 13
References.................................................................................................................. 14
1. Introduction
Colonialism is an intricate procedure since it involves the practice or policy of one person exercising authority over another person or territory. The term colony is derived from the Latin ‘colonia’ which means "a place for agriculture." The first wave of colonialism began in the 15th century, then came the second wave in the 19th. Sri Lanka was colonized by three Western powers: the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the British. The colonization was motivated by the shape and location of Sri Lanka. As previously said, three Western powers had introduced their policies and rules to the Ceylonese in order to obtain some advantages. That policy had both beneficial and negative consequences. As a result, this essay will mostly examine the following aspects of colonialism in Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka's social structure and nature prior to the colonial period, a primer on colonialism, colonial rules, and Sri Lanka. This article will investigate the political and administrative consequences, economic consequences, and socio-cultural consequences of these colonial regulations.
2. Sri Lanka's social structure and nature prior to the colonial period
Sri Lanka is a small island near India, and it has been promoted as a lovely and fertile country close to India's southeastern coast. It covers an area of 65,610 square kilometers, including 960 square kilometers of water. The Polk Straits are a separate line that connects Sri Lanka to mainland India and is located in a strategic location in the Indian Ocean. According to the ‘Wordometer’ website,
the current Sri Lanka became an important part of the world due to the Silk Road and significant commerce hubs such as Colombo and Trincomalee. Sri Lanka has had several names since ancient times.
“Lanka was the Sanskrit name and perhaps the first Rtnadvipa (Island of gems) was also an early name. The early Sinhalese called it Simhaladvipa (Island of the lion race). Vijaya and his followers are said to have named it Tambapanni, which refers to the copper-colored soil they encountered on their arrival near Puttalam. The Tamils called it Ilam or Ilankei. The Greeks named it Taprobane and this was properly derived from the Sanskrit Tambapanni. The Arabs corrupted the Sinhalese Simhaladvipa to Serendip” (Yogasundaram, 2006: p. 23).
Furthermore, Sri Lanka is a multicultural society with a diverse range of cultures, faiths, and races. Concerning the racial origins of Sri Lanka, the Sinhalese, Tamils, and Moors are the most important categories since, as previously said, Sri Lanka was formed by a variety of racial origins.
3. Social Formation in the Ancient Period of Sri Lanka
3.1. Administration Sector
According to recorded history, the smallest administrative unit was the 'gama (village),' which was ruled by a 'gamika (headman). These villages were constructed on the king's land, and taxes from these villages (gabadagama) were an important source of money for the king. There existed a feudal system, with the king at the helm, and aristocracy that was intimately linked to the clan structure. The monarchy was central to the political and social framework; "the higher officials of the kingdom, including the commander in chief of the army (Senpathi), were either members of the king's immaculate family or pramukhas." The king was the fountainhead of justice, and he was meant to listen to even the meanest of his subjects' grievances. A ‘sabha’ or council of ministers advised the king. There was also a system of forced unpaid work for the king known as 'Rajakariya'. This was a caste-based compulsory service system. Subjects were forced to give labor for road construction, irrigation projects, and other public works projects as a condition of holding land.
3.2 Society
Village: A family is a biological unit, and the village structure is made up of many families. Simply put, villages are social units that may be identified. Each village had its own headman, and there were ties between villages in the area to ensure proper operation. Before colonialization, there were headmen, known as 'Gammuladeni,' who performed various functions such as guiding and counseling the inhabitants of the village. Aside from that, the village structures were patriarchal in nature.
Caste: In the sources, the class group is denoted by broad phrases like In the sources, the class group is denoted by broad phrases like "jati," "gotra, and kula. However, in the texts, phrases additionally serve to represent family, race, or tribe. For an instance;
“The ‘jataka atuwa getapadaya’ which can be dated to the ninth or tenth century A.D refers to a brave (drummers) caste. The ‘movie or cultivator caste and the Khumbhalakara or the potter caste are frequently in the sources” (Siriweera, P: 239)
“The janawamsa, which was probably written in the fifteenth century, refers to various castes such as Govi, Pesakara or Salagama, Rada, Dura, Kumbal, Kevul; Nakuru, Padu, and Rodi … ” (Siriweera, P: 240).
Religion: Prior to the arrival of the Portuguese, Buddhism was the dominant religion in Ceylon. During the reign of Devanampiyathissa, Mahinda Thero, the son of Emperor Ashoka, introduced Buddhism to Ceylonese. Buddhism also had a significant impact on the island's literary development. In the third century B.C., the vast majority of Sri Lanka's inhabitants converted to Buddhism (Theravada). In addition to Buddhism, the Tamil people practice Hinduism and revere gods. Thus, tree worship was incorporated into Buddhist rites through the reverence of the Asratta or Bodhi tree.
Language: There were two major languages in Sri Lanka throughout its ancient period. There were some, the Sinhala and Tamil languages. The Sinhalese language may be considered a separate language in the second half of the third century A.D., and Tamil influenced the vocabulary, idioms, and syntax of the Sinhala language as it developed. Tamil must have been spoken in Sri Lanka since ancient times. "Those early Tamil invaders, Sena and Guththika, must have brought a retinue with them, and these would have been Tamil speakers." Elara, the next Tamil conqueror, ruled for nearly four decades.
Property and Power-based social division: In ancient Sri Lanka, there was a social hierarchy. Upper Level: refers to the sets 'Situna, or chief / Middle Level: The second most important social category, which includes middle-level bureaucrats, common merchants, and warriors / Third Level: Ordinary agriculturists and artisans. Furthermore, "according to John Doily in his book 'A Historical Relations of Ceylon,' the last Kandyan king, Sri Wickarama Rajasinghe, says the king's power is massive." His decisions are unwavering. The ministers can only advise him; they cannot change his mind. He chooses between violence and peace. He is the one who establishes the rules.
4. Brief Introduction to Colonialism
Colonialism is difficult to define because it is a behavior. Colonialism is described as "one power's control over a dependent area or people." It occurs when one nation subjugates another by conquering and exploiting its people, frequently while imposing its language and cultural norms on them. It relates to colonialism in the following way, according to the Oxford English Dictionary:
"The policy or practice of gaining full or partial political control of another country, occupying it with settlers, and economically exploiting it."
Colonialism was practiced in empires such as ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, and Phoenicia. The modern era of colonialism began during the Age of Discovery. Portugal began seeking new trade routes and civilizations outside of Europe in the 15th century. Christopher Columbus began seeking a Western route to India and China in 1942. The colonial authority also invested in infrastructure and trade, as well as transmitted medical and technological expertise. They fostered literacy and the acceptance of Western human rights principles in some situations. Under colonial authority, certain former colonies, such as Ghana, saw improvements in nutrition and health. Scholars, on the other hand, continue to dispute the harms of colonialism. For instance: Environmental degradation, the spread of economic instability, Ethnic rivalries, and human rights violations.
5. Colonial Rules and Sri Lanka
Through their rule, the Europeans reorganized Sri Lanka's social, administrative, economic, and political sectors. As a result, that period was acknowledged as significant since those ruling tactics had a substantial impact on Sri Lankan society. However, we were in three major colonial periods, as seen below, and there were colonial effects.
- The Portuguese period
- The Dutch period
· The British Empire's reign
'Nira Wickaramasinghe,' a history professor at the University of Colombo, wrote on colonialism in her book "Sri Lanka in the Modern Age: A History of Controversial Identities" as follows: Indeed, she was particularly aware of socioeconomic changes in Sri Lanka throughout the colonial period.
“Colonialism touched Ceylon and its people in an uneven fashion. Only in the western and south-western regions of Ceylon had there been early signs announcing the burgeoning of modernity; the growth of towns, a moving labor force, and population flow from south India, the spread of the use of money, an increase in production and the expansion of long-distance trade had broken the isolation and insularity of many people. Lives had become interconnected across territories, seas, and oceans” (Wickramasinghe, 2006: P.6).
Ceylon had three major power centers in the sixteenth century. The kingdoms of Kotte, Kandy, and Jaffna in Sri Lanka received their names for their metropolitan centers.
“Sitavaka (the exception being the kingdom of Jaffna with its capital of Nallur) or the region in which they were located, for example, the ‘hill-country kingdom’ Sri Lanka from being a cluster of center-based overlapping societies-galactic states, as it became a boundary-based society where the sea played the main role” (Wickramasinghe, 2006: p. 8).
Dom Lourenco and his fleet drove up the western coast of Sri Lanka in either November 1505 or August 1506. The Portuguese were primarily concerned with monopolizing trade on the Malabar Coast and driving out their Muslim (Arab or Moor) competitors. During the Portuguese period, they established their control mechanisms in Ceylon and were able to reconstruct Ceylon's society. The Portuguese intervention in Ceylon continued to have an impact on the island. Furthermore, Dutch authority in Sri Lanka was carried out through the Dutch East Indian Company (Vereenig de Oostindische Compagnie; generally referred to as the VOC), a trading company founded in 1602 to defend Dutch trade interests in the Indian Ocean. Although the Dutch first controlled mainly the coastal territories, they progressively expanded the interior, eventually dominating significant territory in southern, southwestern, and western Sri Lanka. They expanded to the shore in 1665, controlling the majority of the cinnamon-growing fields as well as the island's points of exit and entry.
The British Empire had interfered with Ceylon's ruling structure by the end of the 18th century, and by the 19th century, they had gained control of the entire nation. In 1796, the British took over the Dutch-controlled province of Ceylon, finally colonizing the entire island in 1815. The British administrators forced the English East India Corporation to share in island governance and granted the corporation a trading monopoly. Particularly prosperous but no longer booming cinnamon trade until 1802, the East Company and the British government shared administration; this is known as dual rule. Following the Treaty of Amiens, Ceylon became a crown colony controlled by British authorities in London through their agent in Colombo. The Kandyan Convention of 1815 established British rule over the Kandyan province. For the first time, a European power dominated the entire island.
6. Political and Administrative impacts of Colonial rule
The administrative system's top layer was deployed in Portuguese. During that time, there was a royal council of ministers, which included the commander of the army (Senpathi) and the chief minister (Ekanayake). The kingdom of Kotte was divided into four districts (provinces). Matara, Sabaragamuwa, four korales, and seven korales were among them. The island of Jaffna was divided into three provinces. The officials in charge of a Disava were known as the Korale Vidana or just the Vidana. The Vidana served both administrative and military purposes.
The island was separated into three big provinces centered on Jaffna, Colombo, and Galle during the Dutch rule. Jaffna and Galle were governed by a commander who was assisted by a council. Their administration was significantly superior to the Portuguese, with far bigger concentrations of power and responsibility, as well as far better equipment for consultation at all stages. The officials were paid out of the company's treasury. The Dutch did not follow the Portuguese practice of allocating local earnings as payment for services.
The administrative system was essentially classified into three sections throughout that time period.
- Commercial
- Civil and
- Military
The Dutch established the position of Disavas in civil administration, with one for each city. Jaffna and Galle were the first, followed by Batticaloa and Matara. Each disava was divided into Koreles, Pattus, and villages, like before. Mdaliyars, Korales, and Athukorales were their senior administrative officers, all of whom were indigenous (Wickramasinghe, p. 14). Each disavani's monarch was typically a Dutch officer, with subordinate positions held by Sinhalese or Tamils loyal to the Dutch.
The Dutch established a well-organized legal system in Ceylon. Colombo, Jaffna, and Galle had significant courts of justice that served the three diverse areas of the island. The Colombo Court also served as an appeals court. The 'Land Road' carried out the majority of the judicial activity in rural areas (Arasarathnam, p. 143). Roman-Dutch law was utilized in the Sinhalese areas of the Southwest and South in the 18th century. This had far-reaching social ramifications. In 1707, they were formalized. For Muslims, a code of Muslim law developed by Batavia and approved by Muslim headsmen was implemented. However, Roman-Dutch law had an important role in Sri Lanka's legal history.
British colonial power contrasted with Portuguese and Dutch colonial dominance. The Ceylon administrative system was founded on ethnic and cultural characteristics of the time. In the political and administrative framework, there was no one unit. Nonetheless, the island is divided into three administrative zones:
- Law country Sinhalese
- Kandyan Sinhalese
- Tamil
Following the British government's original division of Ceylon into five provinces in 1833, and later into nine provinces. The boundaries of these provinces were defined purely by administrative factors without regard to race (Yogasundram, 2006: p.274).
- Western North-western
- Southern Central
- North-central Eastern
- Uva Sabaragamuwa
Districts were established within the provinces. There were twenty-one districts in total, with a government agent in each province. The districts were further subdivided into main headmen's divisions, of which there were 110 in all. Under the superior, these were subdivided into 613 sub-divisions. Aside from the Colebrooke administration's stance, Cameron advocated for Ceylonese to have a unitary judicial system. That recommendation targeted all religions and social classes. As a result of this recommendation, everyone may be able to enjoy equal rights.
Furthermore, when the British administration established the legislative council in Ceylon at the time, there were nine official and six unofficial members. Meanwhile, to remove the administrative services' exclusive British character, the Commissioners recommended that civil service recruitment be open to all and suitable Ceylonese be considered for appointment and promotion to the highest offices in the country (Arasarathnam, 1964: p. 155-156).
In addition, the British government established numerous political and administrative organizations for Ceylonese, and they adopted proposals based on the notion of equal rights among ethnic groups. As an example:
· The first time communal representation was introduced by the British Empire,
- Representative Government
- Executive committee
· Introduction of Universal adult franchise
7. Economic Consequences of Colonial Rule
The principal commodities traded in the sixteenth century were areca nuts, coconuts, cinnamon, pepper, elephants, jewels, and pearls. Money had been introduced, and crops for sale had been planted. Sri Lankan elephants were highly prized, and the major export goods were gem manufacturing and pearls.
Furthermore, cinnamon was the most significant item of trade at the time, and the Salagama caste was in charge of gathering, drying, and peeling it. In this sense, the Portuguese established an export-oriented economy in Ceylon.
Sri Lanka's international trade changed dramatically after the arrival of the Europeans. The Dutch supported the cultivation of trade-value crops. They forced the peasants to plant more pepper and cardamom. They also brought coffee to the country. Markets for the island's coffee can be found in Europe, the Middle East, and the surrounding subcontinent. During the Dutch period, coconut cultivation grew dramatically. Elephants were the most important trade item during this time period. Jaffna was the principal trading port for elephants. Elephants were utilized for warfare, transportation, and ceremonial purposes. They focused on the cinnamon plantation. As a result, betel and cinnamon, as well as high-value gemstones from mines in the central highlands and pearls from fishers on the Northwestern coast, have become key export products. A cinnamon department, or Mahabadde, organized the peeling and distribution of cinnamon by all Salagama caste males. The Dutch were also concerned with paddy agriculture. They even attempted to establish cinnamon plantations near Colombo at the conclusion of their tenure. All of these attempts resulted in some progress in the coastal agriculture industry.
The Dutch wanted to monopolize the island's trade soon after acquiring political authority. Their monopoly was initially restricted to the export of cinnamon and elephants. Furthermore, rice and textiles were the most important imports. The Dutch maintained the Portuguese approach of honoring the existing land structure and service connection, but they did it more methodically in order to increase revenue.
There were certain advantages when describing the influence of Dutch economic policies. Sri Lanka's trade expanded, resulting in more comprehensive infrastructure and sophisticated transportation systems. The VOC built three major canal systems in the island's western, southern, and eastern halves. The eastern system was the western system, which connected Colombo to Kalpitiya to the north and Bentota to the south.
Aside from that, Europeans popularized the use of cannons, rifles, and other smaller weaponry. As a result, the number of metalworkers on the island increased dramatically. As a result of Dutch trade policies, Ceylon's economic sector has evolved significantly. We continue to benefit from their trade and economic policies as Sri Lankans.
In the United Kingdom, Adam Smith and the utilitarian thinkers who followed him, such as Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, were displacing mercantilism with more liberal beliefs. These thinkers were proponents of a laissez-faire policy.
Meanwhile, land belonging to the British crown was sold cheaply to farmers in order to boost plantation agriculture, and the ventures proved profitable. Coffee farms were especially lucrative. However, in the 1870s, a leaf disease decimated the coffee industry. In the 1880s, experiments with tea as a plantation crop were instantly successful.
“By the late 1890s tea plantations were expanding by about 20,000 areas per annual and by 19900 the total acreage under tea was 384,000 and in modern times it is about 500,000 acres (Yogasundram, 2006: p. 269)”.
Aside from that, they backed a free economy during the British period. As a result, they abolished the cinnamon and salt monopolies and abandoned governmental engagement in other areas of economic life. The main crops were cinnamon, coffee, and pepper plantations. Ceylon also maintained trade links with countries further east, primarily the Malay Peninsula and the East India Islands, shipping items such as tobacco, arrack, and other coconut tree products, salt, and bee's wax while importing silk, glass, and chinaware (De Silva, 2009: p. 53).
As a result of those cultivations, the British developed road facilities to gain the full benefits of the cultivations. Before the British period, there was a system that was used to serve the king, and it was called a ‘Rajakariya’. That system was utilized for the road and bridge construction. Major roads were constructed by the laborers who were serving the king.
The above-mentioned economic changes had been affecting Ceylon day by day because, at that time, tea plantations were one of the major export crops of Ceylon. Otherwise, in recent times, the bridges, roads, and railways, which are made by the British people, have been gaining lots of benefits for us, even enhancing tourism in Sri Lanka.
8. Socio-cultural impacts of Colonial Rule
The Portuguese rule had a significant impact on the Sri Lankan administration structure and the economy. Meanwhile, they shared their cultural values with Ceylon. Caste and social class shaped Ceylon's social structure in the 16th century. There existed a social system that was hierarchical. Furthermore, some from lower castes who saw no future in Hinduism or Buddhism turned to Christianity. The Karava and Parava castes, particularly in the southern and northern coastal districts. In that sense, many Ceylonese adopted Portuguese names.
For instance,
Silva, Perera, Fernando, Peiris, de Andrado (Wickramasinghe, 2006: p. 13).
In terms of architecture, the Portuguese brought more permanent structures in house construction than had previously been used in Sri Lanka. A style of construction with curved clay tiles for roots developed (Yogasundram, p. 184). Aside from that, the Portuguese actively pushed some of their countrymen to intermarry with the indigenous population in order to generate future recruits for their army and fleet.
8.1. Religion
When characterizing the impact of Portuguese colonial rule, religion policy was more influential than other policies. Buddhism and Hinduism were important when they arrived in Ceylon. Traditionally, bhikkhus taught the fundamentals of Sinhalese reading and writing. During the Portuguese period, the Catholic Church established a church-based education system in Sri Lanka. In addition, Dharmapala had stolen a huge quantity of land from Buddhist monasteries and gave it to the several Catholic organizations functioning in Ceylon. On the other hand, only Christians were appointed to important offices, and the nobility, rather than losing their traditional positions of leadership, preferred to shed their traditional faith. Moreover, some famous Buddhist and Hindu temples were destroyed, and churches were constructed in their very precincts (Arasarathnam, 1964: p. 136).
Benefits of the Catholic religion;The Portuguese religious policies substantially altered the structure of Sri Lanka's religious practice. The introduction of Catholicism to Ceylonese has numerous advantages, including the following:
· The church paid lots of attention to education.
· They set up schools in the major town.
· Attention was paid to the learning of Sinhalese and Tamil because of the need to communicate with these people.
· Also, they gave many new words to both Sinhalese and Tamil, especially regarding the article introduced by the Portuguese to Ceylon. These included architectural terms, furniture, articles of dress, and food (Arasarathnam, 1964: p. 137).
Under the socio-cultural impacts of Dutch policies, the Sinhalese of the low country were increasingly subjected to Western influences in their social customs and laws. They enjoyed a higher standard of living and greater literacy. Their economic organization became more feudal. There are many Dutch loanwords in the two official languages of Ceylon, Sinhala, and Tamil.
For instance,
- Potato – Arthapal
- Hospital – Ispirithale
- Iskuruppuwa
- Isthoppuwa
Protestant Christianity entered the island for the first time under the Dutch. Roman Catholicism was banned by the Portuguese, and the Dutch established schools usually attached to churches. In 1960, the Dutch established the first seminary for higher education in Nallur, and another was later established in Colombo. The more talented pupils from all over the island were sent to these institutions for training as teachers. A few of these students were sent to the Netherlands for further education. In the 18 th century, the Dutch established a printing press in Colombo to publish religious books.
Meanwhile, the Dutch established a modest but sturdy architectural system in Ceylon. "Of their forts, the star-fort at Matara (built by Governor Baron Van Eck between 1763 and 1765) has the most picturesque walls in the shape of a six-pointed star, and the fort at Jaffna is the most impressive from a military standpoint." Their churches are well-proportioned and have distinctive gables. "The main place for Dutch worship was the Wolvendaal Church in Colombo (built around 1750)" (Yogasundram, 2006: p. 217).
During the British period, the most important factor was the abolishment of the ‘Rajakariya’ system, which was built with free labor service and further developed the caste system. Nevertheless, the development of a capitalist economy combined with a laissez-faire attitude in the second half of the century produced a class of entrepreneurs among the local population.
The colonial government was reluctant to expand education because of the expense and the lack of an adequate administrative structure. Another important influence that entered the island during the British period was Christian missionary education and religious activity. In that period, the English language was to be the main tool. Most of the missionary schools were in English. In 1826, English became essential for even a minor post in the administration. In 1835, ‘Reverend Marsh, a Scotsman, started a private school on the rear verandah of his church to educate Sri Lankan upper-class children in English. This school is called the ‘Hill Street Academy." Moreover, even the history and geography of Sri Lanka were neglected in favor of the history and geography of Britain. The purpose was to prepare students for higher education at British universities. Apart from that, the colonial government did not want to spend lots of money to spread English education and higher education on the island.
The Buddhist revivalist movement arose in the twentieth century to challenge the dominance of Christian institutions in the educational system. That education has the greatest impact on Buddhism and Buddhist monks. However, there was also a positive impact. Ceylon Technical College was established in 1894 (during the British time) to provide engineering and surveying training to government technical professionals. Furthermore, the British government made medical services available to the general population. For instance, they extended their medical facilities during the period of the malaria pandemic.
In that sense, the British colonial rules were mostly different from the Dutch and Portuguese rules. There were also positive and negative impacts. The British colonial government developed the infrastructure and introduced constitutional processes and methods of democracy for Sri Lankans. Therefore, when describing the impacts of colonial rules, definitely point out both negative and positive impacts.
All European powers, in the end, impacted Sri Lankan culture, education, social, and administrative platforms. As a result of globalization, we continue to rely on their conventions and standards, particularly in our Western-influenced society and culture. Even now, policies have an impact on Sri Lankan society, and such policies have the capacity to change the color of our traditional society.
Conclusion
Indeed, we are unable to readily abandon the colonial rulers because the rules they established had the potential to recreate the Sri Lankan administration sector, culture, trade, business, education, and religion. As a result of this, when writing about the consequences of colonial rule in Sri Lanka, I concentrated on the subject matter that followed:
'Pre-colonial Sri Lankan social formation,' a primer on colonialism, colonial rules, and Sri Lanka. Also, what were the main consequences of these colonial rules for Sri Lanka?
Furthermore, when emphasizing the positive consequences of colonial authority in Sri Lanka, a couple of characteristics could be mentioned; the creation of an efficient administrative system, Introduction to democracy, Economy of export and import, Adoption of Western human rights norms, Government by representation, Improved the infrastructure, Changed the structure of social strata and promoted literacy. Apart from that, the colonial rules had several negative consequences; Environmental degradation, the spread of disease, economic instability, Ethnic rivalries, and Human rights violations.
To summarize, colonial norms have both positive and negative outcomes. The European standards that were imposed replicated Sri Lanka's shape. As a result, being a developing nation, we have to devote particular attention to how we might raise our worldwide standards. Indeed, the most worrying issue is that European powers continue to exert economic influence on developing countries. Finally, while colonialism produced a well-organized political, economic, and social system in Sri Lanka, it also had certain negative implications that continue to influence our daily lives now.
References
Arasarathnam, S. (1964). Ceylon. New Jersey; Prentice-Hall.
De Silva, K.M. (EDT). (2009). History of Ceylon. Wellampitiya; Chathura printers.
Wickramasinghe, Nira. (2006). Sri Lanka in the Modern Age; A History of Contested Identities . Colombo; Vijitha Yapa Publication.
Wilson, A. Jeyarathnam. (1974). Politics in Sri Lanka 1947-1979. London; the MacMillan Press Ltd.
Yogasundram, Nath. (2006). A Comprehensive History of Sri Lanka from Prehistoric Times to the Present . Sri Lanka; Tharanjee Printers.